Biology - Topic 2

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  • Created by: stelly_tn
  • Created on: 09-11-17 12:43
What is the effect of cystic fibrosis on the lungs?
Mucus removes dust and bad microorganisms from the cells lining the airways however thick sticky mucus in a CF causes them to become blocked since the cilia cannot move it
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What is a ciliated epithelial cell?
Cells with hair on that line cavities and tubes within an animal
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What is the apical membrane?
The membrane at the surface, facing the lumen
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What is the basal membrane?
The membrane on the underneath, which anchors it to the connective tissue
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What is SA:V?
Surface area to volume ratio
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What happens to the SA:V as the creature increases?
The ratio decreases
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What happens to the SA:V if the volume is bigger than the surface area?
The ratio decreases
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What determines the rate of diffusion?
Surface area, concentration gradient, thickness of the gas exchange surface
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How does a large surface area benefit the rate of diffusion?
A large surface area increases the rate of diffusion because it allows for more diffusion to occur. The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to surface area
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How does a greater concentration gradient benefit the rate of diffusion?
A greater concentration gradient increases the rate of diffusion because it determines the direction of movement for the particles, i.e from high concentration to low concentration. The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the gradient
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How does a thicker gas exchange surface disadvantage the rate of diffusion?
A thicker gas exchange surface causes decreases the rate of diffusion because it takes a longer time to diffuse through. The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the thickness of the surface
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What is Ficks Law?
Rate of diffusion = (surface area x difference in concentration) / thickness of the gas exchange surface
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Why is CF mucus so sticky?
The reduced water level is due to abnormal salt and water transport across the cell surface membranes, due to a faulty channel protein, therefore making it sticky
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What is the effect of CF on the male reproductive system?
Mucus blocks up sperm duct and makes ejaculate sticky
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What is a protein?
A protein is a long polypeptide chain
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What are proteins made up of?
Amino acids
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How many amino acids are there?
20
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What is the primary structure of a protein?
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain joined by peptides
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What affects the primary structure of a protein?
The order and number of amino acids
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What is the secondary structure of a protein?
The formation of secondary structure primarily alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets. Also known as the folding of the polypeptide chain.
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What is an alpha-helix/describe it?
This has a regular coiled structure with R groups pointing outwards. The H bonds are weak individually but strong altogether. The helix is flexible and elastic
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What is a beta-pleated sheet/describe it?
This has a side by side structure that are connected by H bonds. Altogether the bonding is very stable since all the peptide linkages are involved in inter-chain H bonding
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What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
The secondary structures fold up to form a very precise 3D shape by ionic, disulphide and hydrogen bonds
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Is a disulphide bond hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
Hydrophobic
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What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
When theres 2 or more polypeptide chains
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What is a conjugated protein?
When there is something attached to the polypeptide chain
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Describe a globular protein
Has a spherical round shape, mostly territory, is a functional protein, R groups facing outside are hydrophilic - soluble, highly specific
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Describe a fibrous protein?
Is a long chain, mostly quaternary, is a structural protein, R groups facing outside are hydrophobic - insoluble, very strong
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What are some examples of fibrous proteins?
Keratin, collagen, elastin
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What are some examples of globular proteins?
Enzymes, antibodies, hormones
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What is the phospholipid bilayer?
Two layers of phospholipids
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What makes up a phospholipid?
Two glycerol tails (fatty acid tails) and a phosphate head
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Is the phosphate head polar or non-polar?
Polar
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Is the phosphate head hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
Hydrophilic
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Are the fatty acid tails polar or non-polar?
Non-polar
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Are the fatty acid tails hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
Hydrophobic
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In what arrangement are the fatty acid tails and phosphate head in the bilayer and why?
The phosphate head is facing outwards because its attracted to the water and the tails are in the inside away from the water because they're hydrophobic
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What is the fluid mosaic model?
A model of the cell surface membrane including the bilayer, showing that some proteins are fixed within the membrane and others are not and can move around the fluid phospholipid bilayer
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What evidence is there for the fluid mosaic model?
Studies showed two types of proteins that could be easily for difficultly removed from the membrane, later named peripheral and integral proteins, & consideration of lipids and proteins in water they formed a bilayer model, electron micrograph
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Why is the membrane more fluid with unsaturated phospholipids in the bilayer?
The kinks in the fatty acids prevent them form laying very close together, creating more spare for them to move
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How do substances pass through cell membranes?
Through diffusion, osmosis, active transport, exocytosis and endocytosis
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What is a glycoprotein?
A protein with a carbohydrate group attached
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What is the function of a glycoprotein?
Protecting our body and communicating between cells
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What is a glycolipid?
A lipid with a carbohydrate group attached
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What is a carrier protein?
A protein to transfer large polar and non-polar molecules across a membrane through active transport or facilitated diffusion
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What is a channel protein?
A protein to transfer small polar molecules across a membrane through facilitated diffusion
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What is a peripheral protein?
A protein that can move within and out the membrane
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What is an integral protein?
A protein permanently attached to the membrane
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What is facilitated diffusion?
Diffusion across a membrane with the aid of proteins
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What is diffusion?
The overall movement of molecules or ions from a region of high concentration to low concentration
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What is osmosis?
What is osmosis?
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What is active transport?
The movement of particles against a concentration gradient in which energy is required
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What energy to required in active transport?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
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What is exocytosis?
The bulk transportation of substances out of a cell
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What is endocytosis?
The bulk transportation of substances into a cell
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Summarise key points diffusion across a cell membrane
From high to low concentration, hydrophobic or non polar molecules, through bilayer, passive
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Summarise key points of facilitation diffusion across a cell membrane
From high to low concentration, hydrophilic or ions, through channel or carrier proteins, passive
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Summarise key points of osmosis across a cell membrane
Movement of water from high to low concentration, passive
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Summarise key points of active transport across a cell membrane
From low to high concentration, through carrier proteins that change shape, requires energy
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Summarise key points of exocytosis across a cell membrane
Bulk transport out of a cell, vesicles fuse with cell surface releasing contents
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Summarise key points of endocytosis across a cell membrane
Bulk transport into a cell, vesicles created from surface membrane bringing contents into the cell
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Describe what happens when theres excess water in mucus
Na+ pumped across basal membrane then ENaC opens for Na to come through to cell, Cl- ions diffuse down electrical gradient, water is drawn out by osmosis due to high salt concentration
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Describe what happens when theres too little water in the mucus
Cl- pumped into cell across basal membrane into cell, CFTR channel open, Na+ diffuses down electrical gradient, high salt concentration draws water out of cell into mucus
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Describe what happens with CF lungs which cannot regulate water in mucus
CFTR channel is absent or not functional, Na+ channel is permanently open, water is continually removed from mucus by osmosis
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Whats the effect of CF on a digestive system?
Digestive cannot be released due to a blocked pancreatic duct and therefore food cannot be digested
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What is the lock and key theory?
When the substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme perfectly,
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What is induced fit theory?
When the substrate fits into the active site of an enzyme but the active sites changes shape to fit more closely around it
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What is activation energy?
The energy required for a reaction to take place
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What do enzymes do to the activation energy?
Reduce it and therefore increase the rate of reaction
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What are catabolic reactions?
When large substrate molecules are broken down into smaller units
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What are anabolic reactions?
When enzymes catalyse the building up of a product
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Define intracellular
Inside the cell
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Define extracellular
Outside the cell
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What is the effect of CF on the female reproductive system?
Mucus blocks up oviduct and prevents egg release
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What is the effect of CF on sweat?
Makes it salty, and hypotonic
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What is a gene?
A sequence of bases on a DNA molecule that codes fro a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
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What a genome?
All the genes in an individual or species
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What is a mononucleotide?
The monomer of DNA
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What is a mononucleotide made up of?
A phosphate head, deoxyribose sugar pentase, and nitrogen containing organic base
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What are the 4 nitrogen containing bases?
Adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine
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What bases pair with what?
A to T, C to G
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How do mononucleotides join together to form a polynucleotide?
Through a condensation reaction between the sugar and phosphate of the next one
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What is the name of the bond between nucleotides?
A phosphodiester bond
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How are the two nucleotide strands positioned in DNA?
They run antiparallel in a double helix
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Why do the base pairs pair up?
The shape and structure of the bases dictates how many hydrogen bonds each one can form, two between A and T, and three between C and G
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What are the two processes in protein synthesis?
Transcription and translation
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What is the difference between DNA and RNA
RNA is made up of ribonucleic acid rather than deoxyribose, the base uracil replaces thymine
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What is mRNA?
Messenger RNA because it carries the code from DNA to the cytoplasm
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What is tRNA?
Transfer RNA because it transfers the amino acid
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What happens in transcription?
Enzyme RNA polymerase attaches to DNA, hydrogen bonds between bases break, DNA unwinds, template strand transcribed to make mRNA, order of bases on DNA determines order of bases on mRNA, leaves nucleus into cytoplasm
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What happens in translation?
mRNA attaches to ribosome, codons face tRNA binding site, tRNA joins, is a 3 base sequence with anticodons and an amino acid binding site, peptide bond forms between acids, tRNA leaves
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How many possible amino acids can there be?
20
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What is DNA replication?
When a cell divides during growth or repair
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How does DNA replication happen?
Hydrogen bonds between bases break allowing DNA to unzip, DNA nucleotides pair up with complementary bases, DNA polymerase links adjacent nucleotides, two identical daughter strands formed
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What is semi-conservating replication?
Each DNA molecule contains one original parent strand and one new strand
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What is conservative replication?
Each DNA has two original parent DNA strands the other molecule has two new strands
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What is fragmentary replication?
All DNA strands are made up of a mixture of original parent DNA nucleotides and new nucleotides
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How do we know its semi-conservative?
During the first stage of replication of DNA medium strand created, ruling out conservative after second two bands in light and medium ruling out fragmentary
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What is a mutation?
A change in the sequence of bases in DNA that could change a triplet that makes up a gene
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What are the 4 types of mutations?
Substituions, insertions, deletions and inversions of base sequences.
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What is the mutation in sickle cell?
DNA contains tripilet code GUA rather than GAA causing haemoglobin to be less soluble, sickle shaped red blood cell, and therefore carry less oxygen and black blood cell
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What is a genotype?
The alleles of a person, genetic makeup
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What is a phenotype?
The characteristics from a genotype
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What does homozygous mean?
The same alleles
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What does heterozygous mean?
Different alleles
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What does a dominant allele mean?
The allele that determines the phenotype of someone that only needs one to be dominant
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What does a recessive allele mean?
The allele that determines the phenotype only if there are two of them
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Is cystic fibrous recessive or dominant?
Recessive
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What is the genotype of someone with CF?
ff
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What is the genotype of someone who carries CF?
Ff
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What is the genotype of someone who is not affected by CF or carries it?
FF
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How can genetic testing be used?
To confirm diagnosis, identify carriers, testing embryos
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What are the ethical frameworks?
Rights and duties, maximising the amount of good in the world, making decisions for yourself, leading a virtuous life
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What are the ethical concerns with genetic counselling?
Can help deice whether couple should use IVF, whether having children is the best choice and whether they should be tested themselves
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Card 2

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What is a ciliated epithelial cell?

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Cells with hair on that line cavities and tubes within an animal

Card 3

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What is the apical membrane?

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Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What is the basal membrane?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

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What is SA:V?

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