Discovering Topic 8: Motivation and emotion

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  • Created by: Chookie
  • Created on: 19-05-17 15:58
What is motivation?
A driving force that moves us towards a particular action / a general term for a group of phenomena that effects the nature of an individual's behaviour, the strength of the behaviour and the persistence of the behaviours
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Hows does evolution operate?
via natural selection. Some traits make it more likely that an organism will survive and reproduce
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Humans have evolved to...
learn from the consequences of their actions and adapt to their environment
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Behaviours that result in reinforcing consequences are more likely to....
persist
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behaviours that result in punishing consequences are likely to...
fade away and stop
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Is control a reinforcer?
yes
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Why is control a reinforcer?
People (and animals) will choose behaviours that give them control over the outcome in preference to schedules that produce more rewards without any input from them
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How does control help reinforce behaviour?
If a reward is reliably contingent on your actions then that reward is less likely to disappear, than if you are receiving uncontingent rewards
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Is novelty a reinforcer?
yes
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Why is novelty a reinforcer?
Because people and animals will work to gain access to new experiences
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How does novelty help reinforce behaviour?
Because neq experiences lead to more adaptive and flexible behaviour overall - more new things, more opportunities for reinforcement,
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What is there prior to the extinction of a behaviour?
an extinction burst
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What is an extinction burst?
When a person/animal repeatedly tries and do the behaviour again and again in the hope it will work to get the reward
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Who found that telectrical stimulation of the brain reinforces an organism's behaviour?
Olds and Milner (1954)
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When Olds and Milner (1954) electrically stimulated the brain and found it reinforced behaviour, those same neural circuits control the release of what?
the neurotransmitter dopamine
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What does dopamine do with reinforcement?
It strengths the connections between neurons and is the key component of the neural reward system.
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What does all reinforcing stimuli cause the release of?
Dopamine
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What are regulatory behaviours?
behaviours which bring physiological conditions back to their ideal state
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What is the ideal state of a system?
homoeostasis
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What are the four essential features of a regulatory system?
The system variable, the set point, the detector and the correctional mechanism
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What is the system variable in a regulatory system?
The thing that varies (like temperature)
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What is the set point in a regulatory system?
The ideal level for the variable
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What is the detector in a regulatory system?
The thing which monitors the value of the variable
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What is the correctional mechanism in a regulatory system?
The regulatory behaviour
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In humans what does the regulatory system consist of?
The nervous system, the endocrine (hormone) system and the sensory organs
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What are homeostatic drives?
Hunger, thirst and thermoregulation are some examples of them. They change when your internal state changes
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What is drive reduction hypothesis?
It states that when such systems are out of balance (like being too cold) the physiological changes are aversive so you seek to fuilfil them
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What type of reinforcement is it when you fullfill a basic need such as thirst
it is negative reinforcement
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What does drive reduction hypothesis not account for?
All of our motivations like sexual behaviour, novelty and control . They are all innately reinforcing but they are not needs.
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What does fulfilling a need/responding to a drive do? (arousal)
reduce our physiological arousal
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What do most rewarding behaviours do? (arousal)
increase our level of arousal
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Are all behaviours negatively reinforced? (like eating food when hungry)
no, some are just reinforcing. There is no baseline state to return to
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What is it called when you have had enough of something?
satiation.
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What is optimum level theory?
That whether a stimulus is reinforcing or punishing can depend on the context. This applies to physiological arousal and stimulation in general.
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What is diversive exploration a response to?
understimulation
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What is specific exploration a response to?
overstimulation (including needs)
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What are Ekman's six basic emotions ?
Happy, Sad, Fear, Anger, Surprise, Disgust
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What is Plutchik's wheel of basic emotions?
A wheel of emotion. Start in the middle and go out. (for example in the middle is terror then you go out to fear then apprehension, in-between admiration and terror is submission. )
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Why do some people think there are basic emotions?
Because there are facial expressions that are universally recognised even by culturally disparate groups
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What is an issue with Plutchik's and Ekman's models of emotion?
The focus on emotions as they would be described by an English speaker. Different languages have different words for different emotions (Forelsket (Norwegian) - the euphoria experienced when first falling in love)
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What must there be for an emotion to be truly "basic"? (culture)
It must be evident across cultures
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What must there be for an emotion to be truly "basic"? (evolutionary)
Have distinct evolutionary puprose
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What must there be for an emotion to be truly "basic"? (apes)
Be evident in higher primates
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What must there be for an emotion to be truly "basic"? (read)
Have a distinct facial expression which is "read" as the same across cultures
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What must there be for an emotion to be truly "basic"? (brain)
Should have a "circuit" in the brain
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What are the three components of emotional responses?
Behavioural, autonomic, hormonal
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What is the behavioural component of emotional response?
what someone does
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What is the autonomic component of emotional response?
Rapid changes in the activity of the nervous system to prepare the body for action
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What is the hormonal component of emotional response?
slower changes to prepare the body for action
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What increases when you are stressed? (Physiological responses)
Epinephrine and norepinephrine, cortisol, cortisol, heart rate and blood pressure, levels and mobilisation of free fatty acids and cholesterol and triglycerides, platelet adhesiveness and aggregation.
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What decreases when you are stressed? (Physiological responses)
Blood flow to the kidneys, skin and gut
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What is the amygdala?
The focal point between the various systems in the brain involved in the behavioural, autonomic and hormonal components of conditioned emotional responses. It communicates with many areas of the brain.
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What are the two neural routes for the conditioning of fear that have been identified?
1) a direct route from the thalamus to the amygdala, 2) an indirect route from the thalamus to the amygdala via the sensory centres.
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What is the orbito-frontal cortex?
It is located in the frontal lobe and is connected to the sensory system and the areas which control decision making, as well as communicating with the limbic systems. Injury to the OFC creates changes in personality and emotional behaviours.
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What is the phyisological theory on emotion? (JL)
The james-lange theory
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What is the james-lange theory of emotion?
That we interpret the physiological changes in our body as emotions (we see a bull, go into flight and interpret us running away as fear)
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What is evidence for the James-Lange theory? (spine)
A patient with a high spinal cord injury said the sometimes act angry but it doesn't have the same heat that it used to, its a mental kind of anger
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What is evidence for the James-Lange theory? (adrenaline)
people who are given a dose of adrenaline report feeling as if they were angry or scared
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What is a physiological theory on emotion? (**)
The schacter-singer model
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What is the Schacter-Singer Model of emotion?
That emotion is determined jointly by the perception of bodily states and cognitive appraisal of the situation
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What is the adaptive value theory of emotion? (evolutionary theory)
Emotions have evolved for their adaptive value. They are considered basic, biologically programmed and universal. They can be distinguished by intensity,similarity and polarity (oppositesness)
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Who developed the evolutionary theory of emotion action tendencies?
Frijda (1988) and Shaver (1992) developed the concept of emotions as action tendencies
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What is the action tendencies evolutionary theory of emotion?
We have a limited behavioural repertoire and emotions make up the basic, universal elements of that repertoire. Emotions move you to readiness for certain actions. The subjective experiences of emotion is simply awareness of the tendencies activating
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What is a cognitive theory of emotion? (L)
Lazarus "cognitive-motivational-relational" theory of emotion
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What is Lazarus's cognitive-motivational-relational" cognitive theory of emotion?
We do a primary appraisal which is an initial assessment of the environment. We then do a secondary appraisal which involves coping (either emotion or problem coping)
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What is emotion-focused coping according to Lazarus's cognitive-motivational-relational" cognitive theory of emotion
It involves defence mechanisms such as avoidance
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What is problem-centred coping according to Lazarus's cognitive-motivational-relational" cognitive theory of emotion
it involves thinking towards a solution
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What is primary appraisal according to Lazarus's cognitive-motivational-relational" cognitive theory of emotion
goal related, ego involvement, mostly innate
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What is secondary appraisal according to Lazarus's cognitive-motivational-relational" cognitive theory of emotion
how might an individual cope? can override primary appraisal
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What is a cognitive theory of emotion? (w)
Wiener's model
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What is Wiener's model cognitive theory of emotion?
It uses the concept of appraisal but adds the concept of attribution. our emotional response depends on what we perceive the cause of the situation to be. (internal/external, stable/changeable, controllable/uncontrollable, global/specific)
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What is a cognitive theory of emotion? (H)
The hedonic treadmill (Diener et al 2006)
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What is the hedonic treadmill cognitive theory of emotion (Diener et al 2006)?
That we return to a baseline state of happiness even after an extremely emotional event. We overestimate how much an event will impact our future happiness. The baseline level of happiness may be innate to some degree.
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