culture and identity theorists

·       Bourdieu (1971) – Marxist:  pop culture inferior – dominant class habitus – class socialisation

·       Marcuse (1964) – Marxist: consumption of mass culture (emphasis on fun) = less critical thinking, social repression, undermine revolution/structural change

·       Strinati (1995) – Postmodernist: diversity of choice – new media/globalisation = high/low distinctions weakening

·       Giddings (2010) – Postmodernist: high culture in mass culture products, e.g. gaming

·       Flew (2002) – new media = development of global pop culture

·       Ritzer (2013) – American (food) brands operate globally – global standardised culture, weakens local culture (think cultural imperialism)

·       Lawler (2014) – Identity constructed by (rooted in) society – unique interaction/differences/similarities – storytelling

·       Mead (1963) – ‘the self’, ‘development’, ‘process of social experience’

·       Becker (1963) – ‘master label’

·       Giddens & Sutton (2013) – ‘primary identity’ (primary socialisation), ‘secondary identity’ (secondary socialisation)

Bauman (2004) – Postmodernist:fixed social group identities becoming 

·       Woodward (2002) – individual identity = self definitions, name/passport/DNA/histories/relationships

·       Goffman (1990) – ‘stigmatised identity’

·       Goffman (1961) – resocialisation in psych hospitals = impose values benefit hospital not patient

·       Jenkins (2008) – identities formed in socialisation – learning about, involvement with individuals and subculture – difference

·       Cooley (1902) – ‘looking glass self’

·       Functionalist

o   Parsons (1951) – primary socialisation crucial – adapting newborns into social being, school bridge between particularistic values/ascribed status and universalistic/achieved

o   Durkheim – schools ‘society in miniature’, religion provides beliefs/codes which unite – social harmony and value consensus

·       Marxist 

o   Bourdieu, Bowles & Gintis, Althusser – sec soc in school = reproduction, legitimisation of class inequality

o   Marx – religion ‘opium of the people’

o   Althusser (1971) – religion = ideological state apparatus, spreads hegenomy

·       Lawler (2014) – social action: identity produced via interpretation of meanings of parts of lives – create own identity using norms/values as adaptational guidelines

·       Cooley (1902) – ‘looking glass self’ – self concept modified by other’s views

·       Goffman (1956) – society = stage, people = actors – ‘presentation of self’, ‘impression management’, social roles + responses = indi/social ID – ‘front/public region’ vs ‘back/private region’, stigmatised ID

·       Giddens (2006) – ‘structuration’: between 2 – structure limits ID but also allows adoption in first place – need tools – people can make ID choices within cultural framework – ‘reflective self’ – ID via process of reflecting on ID/interaction with individuals/agencies

·       Giddens (1991) – ID = evolving narrative – reflecting, reworking – ‘identity story’ – interactions – ‘identity story’ must make sense, maintained via impression management

·       Bourdieu (1971) – Marxist: ruling class habitus dominant, ‘cultural capital’

·       Scott (1991) – traditional upper class subculture includes: primary/secondary socialisation into attitudes/networks (school, ‘old boys’), military service, domestic staff, high culture, codes/etiquette, leisure (hunting, racing, Wimbledon), sense of leadership/superiority

·       Savage (1995), Roberts (2001) – difficult to generalise but middle class culture = commitment to education, importance of personal ambition, self interest, future orientation/deferred gratification, prefer high culture, concern for health

·       Lawler (2005) (drawing on Bourdieu concept of ‘taste’) – taste = maintain identity, sense of superiority, view working class as contemptible/beneath them

·       Jones (2011) –middle class – ‘chav’ stereotype

Hoggart (1969) – tradition w/c = strong morals, respectability, community

·       Murray (1989, 1990) - New Right: characterised: family instability, ‘yob culture’, crime/benefit cheating, educational exclusion, work shy

·       Jones (2011) – ‘demonisation of working class’ – ‘white trash’, ‘chav’

·       Shildrick et al. (2007) – media says alleged qualities are intrinsic – not social inequality – idea people are poor b/c own failings/neutralises sympathy, promote hegemony 

·       Clarke & Saunders (1991) – declining importance, fragmented, replaced by other influences

·       Pakulski & Waters (1996) – replaced by consumption

·       Connell (1995) – ‘hegenomic masculinity’ (sexuality, dominance, aggression)

·       Oakley (1972) – children socialised into gender identities in family via manipulation, canalisation, verbal appellations, differential activity exposure

·       Naomi Wolf (1990) – ‘The Beauty Myth’ (cosmetics and capitalism)

·       Central YMCA/Succeed Foundation (2012) – 80% men = anxiety re. body image (75% women) – increased male dieting + eating disorders

·       Mac an Ghaill (1994) – ‘crisis of masculinity’ in modern world, missing role of their fathers

·       Butler (1990) – ‘Gender Trouble’ –gender/desire fluid/flexible, gender is a performance (‘performatively constituted by the very ‘expressions’ that are said to be its results’), deconstruct hegemony by subverting gender

·       Mulvey (1975) – ‘male gaze’

·       McRobbie (1994) - ‘beauty stakes have gone up for men, & women have taken up the position of active viewers’

·       Stonewall (2017) – ‘LGBT In Britain: Hate Crime & Discrimination’: 1/5 experienced hate crime/incident due to orientation/identity last 12 months

·       Stonewall (2017) – ‘LGBT In Britain: Trans Report’: ¼ experienced homelessness

·       Nedal et al. (2011) – ‘heterosexist microagressions’: use of heterosexist (heteronormative) terminology, endorsement of hetero culture/behaviour, assumption of universal LGBT experience, exoticisation, discomfort/disapproval, denial of reality of heterosexism, assumption of sexual abnormality, threatening behaviour

·       Gilroy (1993, 2002) – no single black ID – slavery affects perceptions – ‘Black Atlantic’ network of support (Africa, Americas, Caribbean, Britain)

·       Sewell (1996) – black identities reinforced coping with racist teachers

·       Sewell (1998) – ‘macho black’ youth ID - media

·       Anwar (1998), Ghuman (1999) – South Asian family – emphasise obligation, commitment to religion – socialised

·       Modood et al. (1994) – interviews/group discussions exploring meaning of ID of Asian groups (largest = Indian, Bangladeshi, Pakistani) – associated with arrange marriage, Bollywood, Bhangra music – differing language, dress, diets, religions, religious institutions, holidays

·       Johal (1998) –‘British Asians’ (Asian primary socialisation, British secondary, ‘white mask’), ‘Brasians’ (‘hybrid identity’ – personal choice)

·       Baroness Warsi (2011) – ‘fashionable Islamophobia’, ‘dinner-table test’

·       Phillips – ‘…word ‘Muslim’ conjuring up images of terrorism…’

·       Fanon (1952) – ‘Black Skin, White Masks’: re. oppression of black people – ‘White Masks’ = self ID of black people – survival strategy – denial ethnicity/adopt dom white culture to achieve social acceptance (can apply to all ethnic minorities)

·       Hall (1992) – eth IDs harder to identify – globalisation/diaspora = merging of cultures and new IDs – hybrid identities and cultures of hybridity

·       Hall (1992) – nations = shared stories/symbols/experiences – draw on for identity (e.g. flag, festivals, heroes, music). Hybridity = global significance of events/reporting, diverse food, travelling & immigration, EU/Euro. Nationalism vs globalisation

·       British Social Attitudes Survey (2014) – ¾ - speaking English, British citizenship, respect for law/institutions, being born/living most of life in UK = ‘fairly’/’very’ important to be ‘truly British’

·       Orr (2011) – opposing globalisation = ‘negative identities’ – defined by what they’re not (e.g. not global citizen)

·       Palmer (1999) – national identity maintained via heritage tourism

·       Hall (1992) – nations = shared stories/symbols/experiences – draw on for identity (e.g. flag, festivals, heroes, music). Hybridity = global significance of events/reporting, diverse food, travelling & immigration, EU/Euro. Nationalism vs globalisation

·       British Social Attitudes Survey (2014) – ¾ - speaking English, British citizenship, respect for law/institutions, being born/living most of life in UK = ‘fairly’/’very’ important to be ‘truly British’

·       Orr (2011) – opposing globalisation = ‘negative identities’ – defined by what they’re not (e.g. not global citizen)

·       Palmer (1999) – national identity maintained via heritage tourism

·       Shakespeare (1998) – disability = social construction – ‘people become disabled…because they have physical or mental differences from the majority’, ‘…relationship between people with an impairment and a society which discriminates against them’

·       Barnes (1992) – stereotypes = dependent, unable to contribute, desexualised, subhuman, wicked/maladjusted, laughed at, pitied, ‘courageous’

·       Aries (1973) – Medieval – infancy to work, modern – childhood protection from work

·       Bradley (1995) – young (teen-20s), older (retirees) – age most important

·       Spijker & MacInnes (2013) – more 65+ than under 15 yrs – life expectancy 79 (male), 83 (female) – need to rethink stereotypes

·       Marhánková (2011) – freedom from labour market + lover lives/health + free time = ‘third age’ – individualism over workplace structure – ‘active aging’ voluntary continuation of work, physical activity, community work, passing on skills

·       Eisenstadt (1956), Parson & Bales (1956) – Functionalist: youth subculture from ‘status frustration’ in transition period – economic dependency/education = difficulty re independent status – assert independent ID – normal and short-lived

·       Hall & Jefferson (1976) – Marxist: youth styles (Skinhead, Punk, etc) = cultures of resistance to dominant ideology

·       Cohen (1972) – Marxist: working class subculture – attempt to re-establish social cohesion lost by unemployment/rehousing of older gen

·       McRobbie (2000) – Marxist feminist: 70s/80s youth culture = patriarchal, girls uninvolved (socialisation, stricter parent controls, safety) – ‘private sphere’ – ‘bedroom culture’

·       Lincoln (2004) – feminist: contemporary bedroom culture – internet- difficult to study

·       Thornton (1995) – postmodernist: subculture replaced – media taste/culture – adopt images from globalised media – relate less to groups

·       Bennet (1999) – ‘neotribalism’ – groups + fluid boundaries, only exist when together, no clear division/style

·       Gini (1998) – work produces goods and identity – income, hours type, status – lack of work – subtraction from adult life

·       Parker (1971,76) – occupations and experiences impacts leisure activities – three patterns = opposition, neutrality, extension

·       Roberts (1978,86), Clarke & Critcher (1985) – Parker = does not take choice into account

·       McIntosh (1988), Deem (1990) – Parker – no account for gender – men in full-time, women in part time, leisure influenced by domestic labour and male control

·       Bauman (2005) – postmodernist: work ceases to be central axis of ID – leisure/consumerism

·       Lyotard (1984) – metanarratives no longer explain ID – fluidity

·       Rojer (1995), Roberts (1978, 86) – modern day - leisure time + consumption = more significant – almost unlimited choice

·       Bocock (2004) – consumer choice/goods = defining ID + projected image – shopping - music, décor, fashion, holidays, clothes, etc

·       Urry (2002) – ‘the tourist gaze’ = view of location with curiosity, constructed by professionals, different from locals – heritage sites – nostalgia for past

·       Baudrillard (2001) – re. above – ‘simulations’. + ‘media-saturated society’ creates desire to consume/form identity from – globalisation expands choice

·       Bauman & May (2004) – advertising = symbolic significance more important than product – selling associated lifestyle/identity – ‘do it yourself identity kits’ (Bauman (1994) – life = shopping mall, consume/change ID). Unequally distributed resources – economic factors – poor cannot afford consumer ID

·       Deem (1986, Milton Keynes); Green, Hebron & Woodward (1990, Sheffield) – feminist: research - patriarchal control restricts women to approved activity – male partners threatened by female independence/contact with other men. Leisure domestic based – e.g. activities with children

·       Clarke & Critcher (1985) – Marxist: leisure commercialised – multinational industry – profit led – e.g. sport, tourism – manipulate choices via media – ‘must haves’ – sense of ID depends on product = profit

·       Scraton & Bramham (1995) – postmodernism ignores most well off = most choice

·       Bradley (1995) – identities via globalisation = ‘pick ‘n’ mix’ – cultures in contact

·       Ray (2007) – globalisation = more complex/fluid world – questioning IDs esp. social groups – multiple/hybrid IDs

·       Bourn (2008) – youth experience globalisation daily online – consume global symbols – targets of global culture – news re. global problems prompts online activism

·       Jenkins (2008) – ID still rooted in groups/experience – no change

·       Bradley (1995) – social inequalities important but weakened influence – more fluidity – still constraints on choice