optimising performance and evaluating contemporary issues

importance

• part of balanced diet
• avoids dehydration
• 50-60% body mass
• regulate body temperature
• carries nutrients and oxygen to cells in plasma
• converts food to energy
• aids respiration
• removes waste
• protects/cushions vital organs

elctrolytes 

• ions of salt
• ions are electrically charged particles
• dehyration occurs when amount of water falls below normal disrupting electrolytes  

electroyltic balance

• concentration of eletrolytes within fluids of the body 
• loss of water through;waste products,sweating and exhaling 
• changes electrolytic balance 

problems if electrolytic balance is unbalanced 

• drowisness and vision impairment 
• muscle weakness,fatigue and cramps 
• interference with neural control of heart (abnormal rhythm)

what is it?

• links with the energy system 
• energy is in the form of ATP (helps aid resynthesis of ATP)
• ATP-------> ADP + P + energy 
• PC---------> P + C + energy 

why take it?

• increase phosphocreatine stores (PC)
• used by sprinters,weightlifters (high intensity activities)
• mixed evidence to show positive benefits 

side effects

• muscle cramps
• diarrhoea/vomitting 
• water rentention 
• psychological effects 

what is it?

• used for growth and repair of muscles 
• protein drink is 70% protein 

Why take it?

• build more muscle mass
• maybe needed by vegetarian to supplement diet
• not needed if you have a balanced diet

side effects 

• liver,heart and kidney problems (if overused)
• cramps 
• vomitting and diarrhoea 

what is it?

• use of plants/extracts 
• administered via oils and infusions 
• e.g. arnica (reduce muscle soreness)

what is it?

• stimulant (not banned) 
• can extent prolonged exercise by using fats to produce ATP
• against the rules in large quantities 
• acts as a diuretic ( makes you wee)

why take it?

• used by endurance athletes/games players

benefits

• increase mental altertness
• reduces effects of fatigue 
• allows performer to continue at a higher intensity for longer 
• improve reaction time/decision making (overall better performance)

side effects 

• anxiety
• addiction 
• stomach upsets 
• loss of fine control 

what is it?

• white soluble compound used in effervescent drinks/antacid 
• soda loading- to delay the onset of fatigue during anaerobic exercise 
• natural bicarbonate (part of buffering) 
• ablitity of blood to compensate for increase in H ions and maintain pH
• H ions diffusing from muscle cells 
• increased bicarbonate H ions out quicker 

why take it?

• athletes can work harder (exercise can continue)
• events between 1-7 mins at near max intensity 
• sports with repeated anaerobic burst (games players)
• interval training 
• calculate amount to be taken and divide into 5 doses 
• take at 30 min intervals 9start 3hrs before)

side effects

• stomach cramps
• diarrhoea 

temperature impact 

• regulation temperature (36-37 degrees)

temperature warming

• clothing 
• shivering 
• sufficient energy through food
• below 35 degrees (hypothermia)

temperature cooling 

• vasodilation (blood vessles dialte/open)
• sweating
• evaporation 

glycaemix index

• system ranking carbohydrates based on how quickly they are converted to glucose and enter the bloodstream

maintaining the balance (before)

• snack/meal (2-4 hrs before)
• drink (4-600ml 2-3hrs before)
• 150-350ml 15 mins before)

during 

• drink whenever possible 
• carbs with higher glycaemic index absorbed more quickly 

after 

• restore water and electrolytic balance 
• replenish carbohyrdates 

problems if the electrolytic balance is not maintained 

• increase in heart rate 
• increas in viscosity (too thick can lead to blockages)
• less blood and oxygen to muscles 
• increase in body temperature 
• slows reaction time and decision making 
• muscle cramps (build up of lactic acid,slat and lack of oxygen)
• muscle fatigue 
• build up of latic acid 
• irregular heart beat (amount of blood isnt consistent)

BMI

• weight (kg) divided height squared (m)

body fat

• amount of fat you have in your body

measuring body fat

• skin fold calipours 
• bio electrical impedence 

manipulating body fat 

• diet 
• training 

anabolic steroids (testosterone)

what is it?

• hormone that increases protein use and muscle cell production 

effects/benefits

• increase synthesis of protein within muscle cells (build up of muscle tissue)
• decrease in fat muscles

side effects

• liver and kidney tumours 
• high blood pressure
• increased cholesterol 
• damages peripheral nerves in body 

anabolic steriods contiued

who would take it?

• power athletes

how is it taken?

• either taken orally or imjected 

how does it work?

• decrease amount of fat in muscle and causes decline in breakdown rate of muscle building proteins/speeds up recovery time 
• allows heavier training regimes
• aids storage of protein 
• builds muscle tissue 
• train for longer and at a higher intensity 

Human growth hormone (HGH)

what is it?

• artifical human growth hormone,when produces using recombinant DNA, this looks identical to the natural hormone 

effects/benefits 

• enhances performance of explosive activities by increasing muscle mass (building more muscle) and repairing bones (train more),ligaments and tendons 

side effects

• joint swelling and pain (more fluid)
• high blood pressure 
• abnormal bone and cartilage growth 
• irregular heart rhythms 
• increased risk of diabetes

Human Growth Hormone (HGH) continued

who would take it?

• shot put
• weightlifters 
• (power athletes)

How is it taken?

• by injecting it into the skin 

how does it work?

• regulates growth,controls the turn over of muscle bone and collagen and the regulation of fat metabolism 

exercise seen as a stimulant 

Beta blockers

what is it?

• blocks the release of adrenaline,causing HR to stay low and helping the performer stay calm by reducing tension 

effects/benefits

• blocks adrenaline/noradrenaline
• reduces tension and calms performer 
• causes arteries to widen,slow action of heart and decrease its force of contraction
• reduces blood pressure and reduced workload for the heart 

side effects

• tiredness/sleep disturbance 
• cold hands and feet
• dizziness
• diarrhoea and sickness

Beta blockers continued

who would take it?

• archery/shooting athletes

how is it taken?

• orally

how does it work?

• causes vasodilation,slow action of heart and decreases its force of contraction 

EPO (erythropoietin)

What is it?

• naturally occuring hormone responsible for regulation of red blood cell production 

effects/benefits

• increse red blood cell count 
• can carry more oxygen 
• aerobic respiration more efficient increase VO2 max 
• linked with altitude training (more Hb for 6 weeks)

Side effects

• increased risk of heart disease 
• blood more viscous (greater strain on heart,clotting)
• headaches 

EPO continued

who would take it?

• cyclists 
• (endurance athletes)

how is it taken?

• orally

how does it work?

• stimulates the production of red blood cells which improves delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the working muscles,thus allowing you to run faster 

Glycogen loading 

aim 

• to increase muscle glycogen stores and stored in muscles and liver 
• supercompensation (store more glycogen than normal)
• used by endurance althetes 

aim of glycogen loading 

• delay fatigue (have more energy)
• increase endurance (by increasing ATP)
• trained athletes may rest for several days before eating a high carb diet
• increase water consumption 

glycogen loading methods (method 1)

• decrease glycogen levels
• increase endurance training 
• 3 days low carb diet 
• tapering (gradually decreasing) training levels
• few days before comp high carb diet 

glycogen training continued 

glycogen loading methods (method 2)

• day before comp, 3 min high intensity training/activity
• opens 'carb window'
• immediately (within 20 mins) have a high carb diet 

why are each of these methods good for athletes?

• allows althletes to emty glycogen stores before replacing them so they dont become sluggish due to excessive carbs
• make sure they are full before performance 
• second method is instant 

altitute training 

• occurs over 2000m/8000ft above sea levels 
• PpO2 is lower and this less oxygen avaliable 
• body produces EPO (erythropoietin)
• usually done for at least 30 days/month

3 phases 

• acclimatisation 
• primary training 
• recovery 

acclimatisation 

• starts immediately
• athlete gets used to PpO2 
• not overdo training and more time for recovery
• lasts between 3-10 days 

altitude training continued 

primary training 

• between 1-3 weeks 
• progressively increas training volume 
• until athlete reaches level it would be at sea level 

recovery

• lasts between 2-5 days
• preparation for athletes returning to sea level
• training volume and intensity is tapered 
• recover completely from fatigue 

altitude training continued 

improving performance

• increase number of red blood cells
• increase Hb and myoglobin 
• increase 02 carrying capacity
• increase tolerance to lactic acid 
• delays OBLA (onset blood lactate accumulation)-delays lactic acid
• benefits last up to 6-8 weeks

hinder performance

• altitude sickness
• training at the same intesity is difficult (loss of fitness)
• benefits lost within a few days back at sea level
• psychological problems- travel/time away from home 

alternative methods

• altitude/O2 tents (replicates lower PpO2)

plyometrics 

• hopping,bounding,medicine ball 

aim

• develop power,speed and explosive strength 
• involves fast twitch fibres (contract more)
• eccentric muscle contraction happens first followed by the concentric contraction 
• stretch reflex activates (detected by the muscle spindlers,sends nerve impulse to spinal cord/CNS)
• elastic energy stored (protects overstretching of muscles to avoid injury)

3 phases (stretch shortening cycle)

• pre stretch (eccentric/elastic energy)
• amortisation (start of concentric)
• muscle contraction (movement)

PNF stretching (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation)

aim

• increase flexibility 
• best with a partner
• uses alternating contraction and relaxation movements 
• can be passive (no associated muscular contraction)
• active (voluntary muscle contraction)

CRAC technique

• Contract-Relax-Antagonist-Contract =isotonic muscle contraction 

autogenic inhibition 

• acchieved where the muscle gradually relaxes following isometric contractions immediately before a passive stretch (makes muscle fibres stretch further)
• muscle spindles detect how far a muscle is stretching and produce the stretch reflex 

Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO)

• senses how much tension is being placed on the tendon 

periodusation 

• dividing the year into training cycles
• based on olympics/world games

macro cycle(long term training plan with a long term goals often a single competition)

• long term planing 
• e.g. netball world cup (to win)

meso cycle ( goal based block of training sessions)

• 2-8 weeks/month
• e.g. improve their attacking/defending skills (tournaments)

micro cycle (repeating groups/pattern of training sessions)

• week/individual training sessions 
• e.g. the drills (pass and follow)

periodisation contiuned

preparation/pre-season training

• developing general fitness
• conditioning and quantity rather than quality 

competitive/season

• refinement of skills and maintaining fitness
• quality rather than quantity 
• tapering- decrease intesity of training ( dont want to get injured)
• peaking- preparation for a specific competition 
• transition phase- out of season revovery period 

How would you prevent or try to prevent injuries?

• protective equipment e.g. shin pads
• warm up/cool down (removal of lactic acid to stop DOM's)
• clothing e.g. football boots 
• checking even and consistent playing surfaces
• balanced diet and staying hydrated 
• following rules 
• ensuring the coach knows everyones capability to prevent overtraining 
• improving flexibility (prevent strain)

How?

• clothing

should be comfortable and durable 

when in different climates layering up if cold 

correct clothing for adequate movement,breathable which allows ventilation 

e.g.football shirts 

• shoes and boots 

fit correctly to avoid blisters 

laces to be tied to prevent trips and falls and more support 

correct shoes for the activity 

e.g. ballet pumps/studded rugby boots tighten the studs

How?

• correct equipment 

not broken/bent 

good quality 

specific to the sport

• protective equipment

covering parts of the body to ensure they arent damaged 

e.g. gum shield/shin pads 

• taping and bracing 

taping/wearing a brace to support the muscle/joint (holds everything place)

e.g. ankle support (netball player)

How?

• strength training and conditioning 

core strength (increases balance thus can hold yourself better and have better posture)

conditioning (repeating it and maintaining core strength via conditions)

• overtraining

can cause muscle fatigue due to too much strain on the muscle and they may suffer from DOM's due to intense longer training

warm up

• 5-10 mins light cardio e.g. jogging 
• 10-15 mins dynamic stretching 
• 10-15 mins sports specific drills 

why warm up?

• increase muscle temperature 
• increase blood flow and oxygen to muscles 
• increase speed of nerve impulses making you faster
• increase range of motion of joints (flexibility) reducing the risk of tearing muscles nd ligaments
• mentally focused on the training/competiton 

cool down 

• 5-10 mins light cardio e.g. jogging/walking 
• 5-10 mins static stretching 

why cool down?

• gradually lower heart and breathing rate
• remove lactic acid 
• reduce risk of muscle soreness
• psychologically calms you down 
• reduces chances of dizziness and or fainting 

• Rest,prevent further injury
• Ice,to reduce swelling 
• Compresion,to aid in reducing swelling (straping)
• Elevation,above the heart to prevent blood rushing to the injured fluid in the body goes to the injured area to protect it 

hyperbaric chamber

• delivers oxygen at a higher pressure 
• 100% pure oxygen (2.5 X more than normal)
• Hb then becomes full saturated
• excess oxygen dissolved in plasma 
• oxygen reaches body parts not normally saturated 
• increased blood supply 
• aim to reduce the pressure at injured area 
• increase white blood cell activity at the injured site 

Ice baths 

• prevent DOM's
• sit in ice cold water 5-20mins 
• causes vasoconstriction 
• restricting blood flow to area to reduce swelling
• leave the ice bath- vasodilation-new blood to area 
• fresh oxygen removes lactic acid
• some research-limited value

Improving DOM's 

• warm up/cool down
• massage
• ice baths
• gradually increasing intensity of work
• avoid eccentric contrations early in sessions  

What happens when we perform the multi stage fitness test?

• HR increases
  
• BR increases 
• perspiration 
• O2 transported to the working muscles 
• lactic acid builds up in the muscles 
• increased H+ ions in the muscles 
• electrolytic balance is lost due to sweating 
• fatigue 

Relationship between VO2 max and lactate threshold?

• intensity increase VO2 max increases (linear relationship/positive correlation)
• lactic threshold occurs at high intensity e.g.running at the highest intesity (sprint) it joins VO2 max
• occurs during anaerobic exercise (due to not recieving O2)
• level of exercise intensity at which you are producing more lactate than can be remoed or resynthesised 
• convert lactate to pyruvate into mitochondria or back into glycogen 
• causes muscle fatigue

factors effecting 

• more acidic environment 
• lack of glucose 
• change of chemical balance affecting their ability to contract 

What is OBLA?

• onset of blood lactate accumulation 
• lactic acid starts to accumulate within the blood/muscle;rapid increase follows
• stars 4mmol/litre
• body cannot get enough O2 to breakdown lactic acid 

Lactate sampling

• taking blood samples to measure levels of lactic acid 
• ensure training is at correct intensity 
• provides accurate/objective measure
• measures OBLA/lactic threshold (occurs 4mmols)

Factors affecting OBLA and the rate of Lactate accumuation

• intensity of exericse 

higher intensity OBLA occurs faster 

• fitness of performer 

physiological factors due to training

more mitochondria/denser capillary network/improved gas exchange

• VO2 max of performer/buffering 

highe level more delayed OBLA

• respiratiory exchange ration (RER)

closer to 1.00 quicker OBLA

• muscle fibre type

if slow twitch fibre,delay OBLA 

Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER)

• ratio of CO2 released to O2 used 
• estimates use of fats and carbs during exercise (calulates energy expenditure)
• tells performer if they are working aerobically/anerobically (the energy system used)
• RER close to 1= carbs
• RER close to 0.7=fats