Anatomy and Physiology

Typical Animal Cell

• Cell Membrane
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm (Make up the Proroplasm)

Cell Membrane

• Thin outer boundary of cell
• Controls movemnet and substances into/out of cell (Semi Permeable- Lest some but not all subatances)

Nucleus/Nucleolus

• Dark rounded structure
• Contains the chromosomes 
• Nucleolus lies within the nucleus and where RNA is

Cell Cytoplasm 

• Basic living maerial of cell
• 90% water (Jelly-like)
• Contains sub-cellular strctures called organlles

Mitochondria

• Engine of the cell
• Produces energy 
• Using Oxygen 

Endoplasmic Reiculum 

• Rough ER has ribosomes attached 
• Ribosomes contain ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Contribute to te muanufacture of roteins, make cell membrances an other parts of the cell

Smooth ER 

• Does not contain ribosomes
• Contains ensymes that manufacture lipids (Steroids)

Golgi Apparatus 

• Proteins and Lipids that have been manufactured in the ER ae packed into vesicles
• Vesicles relase their contents into the GA, modified to become Lysosomes

Lysosoms

• Used to digest food, clean up and recycles broken organelles
• Mop up invaders that have been attacked and killed by WBC
• If damaged cell will die aas it will become toxic

Centrioles

• Only in animel cells 
• Self-replicating
• Made of bundles of microtubes
• Help in organizing cell division

Cell Specialisation 

• Adopt a specisalised shape to perform their particular function
• No matter how spcialised the become, the still have the main feaures of cell (membane, cytoplasm and nucleus)

The Vertbral (Spinal Column

• Functions of the spine
• Provides movement
• Supports the hea 
• Protects the spinal cord 
• Poin of attachment for ribs 
• Point of attatchment for muscles

Divisions of the vertebral column

• 7 Cevrvical-C1-C7
• 12 Thoratic-T1-T12
• 5 Lumbar-L1-L5
• 5 Sacrum (fused)
• 4 Coccyx (fused)
• Total= 33 Bones

Cervical Vertebrae

• C1-C2 Atlas and Axis
• Allow us to rotate the head
• Do not have a body

Typical Cervical Vertebrae

• C3-C7
• Allow neck 
• Flxion/Extension 
• Do have a body

Thoracic Vertebrae

• T1-T12
• Allow for rotation of the chest/upper body 
• Have relatively thin body

Lumbar Vertebrae

• L1-L5
• Provide suppot 
• Wide body

Spinal Curves

• The spine is curved t absorb impact and stress
• Without the spinal curves the impact during any activity would be huge

The spine and posture

• The natural curves of the spine should always be maintained whether lying, seated or standing 
• Back pain is due to postural imbalances
• These may be caused by tight muscles o muscle srength ibalances 
• 3 common postural problems relating to the spine are: Lordosis, Kphosis, Scoliosis 

Lordosis

• An excessive curtvaure of the lumba spine
• Often seen in the late stages of pregnancy
• Observed in people with excessive weight around the abdomen

Kyphosis

• Excessive curvature of the thoracic spine
• Often seen in advanced stages of osteoporosis
• Deterioation caused by osteoporosis 

Scoliosis

• Lateral curvature of the spine (distictive S shape)
• Can affect either the thoracic or lumbar vertebrae 
• Commonly occurs when leg lengths differ

Muscle Layers 

• Deep muscle layer
• Middle muscle layer 
• Outer muscle layer
• Muscle layers should work together to provide tability and mobility during movement 

Axial and Appendicuar Skeletons 206 (270 at birth) bones 

Axial Skeleton

• Protection 
• Skull, Vertebrae, Ribs (80)

Appendicular Skeleton

• Movement 
• Pelvic/Shoulder girdles, limbs (126)

Functions of the skeleton

• Movement 
• Support 
• Protection
• Storage 
• Blood cell production 
• Muscle attachment

3 Types of Cartilage Tissue

• Hyaline-shiny tissure,marix of most bones (head of femur)
• Fibro-Bigger, more dense, collagen fibres with elastic (intervertebral disc)
• Elastic-Surroundedby dense ekastic fibres (epiglottis)

Cartilage cells uique

• No dirrect supply of blood
• No direct supply of oxygen 
• No dirrect supply of nutrietns
• Water is cheif competent of cartilige 

3 Types of Bone cells 

• Osteoblasts (bone bud)
• Osteocytes (bone cell)
• Osteoclasts (bone break)

Bone Development (Ossification)

• Intramembranous (between membrane)
• Endochondral (around cartilige)

2 Types of Bone Tissue

• Typical long bone made up of (compact-hard cancellous-spongy)

Muscle Facts

• Approximately 600 muscles in the human body
• Can only pull not push
• Work in pairs 
• Attached to bones by tendons 
• Have an origin and insertion point

How muscles are named

• Location-anterior-deltoid
• Shap-trapezius, rhomboids
• Size-fluteus maximus, pectoralis major
• Direction of fibres-obliques 
• Number of origins-biceps, triceps 
• Location of origin/insertion-sternovlridomastoid 

Function of muscle tissue

• Movement 
• Posture 
• Joint stability 
• Heat generation

Muscle tissue characteristics 

• Exitibility (electrical)
• Contractility (shorten)
• Extensibility (stretch)
• Elasticity (rebound)

Types of muscle tissue

• Cardiac-involuntary 
• Skeletal-voluntary
• Smooth-voluntary