Word Production

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What is speaking?
Human ability to speak is universal, systematic study did not begin until the end of the 19th century, first theory based on introspection
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Meringer and Mayer?
Collected and analysed for the first time spontaneously produced speech erros
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What is the speaking rate?
Mental lexicon contains 50K - 100K words in a normal literate adult, errors: 1 or 2 every 1000 words, 2-4 words per second, Fran Capo: 603 words in 54 seconds, 11 words per second
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What are spoonerisms?
Intended Utterance>actual utterance, you have missed all my history lectures--> You have hissed all my mystery lectures
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Such errors in production are called what?
Speech errors or slips of the toungue occur regularly in normal conversation
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What do speech errors provide?
Evidence for the units, stages, and cognitive computations involved in speech production
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What are the types of speech error?
Anticipations, preservations, exchange, shifts, additions, deletions, substitutions, blends
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What are distinctive features?
Pity the new teacher --> Mity the due teacher ([-nasal] /p/ -> [+nasal])
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What are phonemic segments?
Consonants: a reading list --> A leading list (Anticipation), A phonological rule --> A phonological fool (Perseveration), A brake fluid --> A blake fruid (Exchange), Speech error --> Peach error (Deletion)
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What is Phonemic segments?
Vowels "Available for exploitation"-> "Avoilable for exploitation" (anticipation) "Annotated bibliography" -> "Annotated babliography" (perseveration)
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What are the syllables?
Syllables are deleted, if there are similar syllables) "Tremendously" -> "Tremenly" (haplology) "Nixon witness" -> "Nitness" "Unanimity of opinion" -> "Unamity of pinion" "recognize" + "reflect" -> "Recoflect"
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Stress
Mobility --> Mobility
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What is a word speech error?
"Tend to turn out" -> "Turn to tend out" (exchange) "I love to dance" -> "I dance to love" (exchange) "I really must go" -> "I must really go" (movement)
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Morpheme word error
Inflection: 'I'd forgotten about that --> Id forgot abouten that, derivational: Easily enough --> Easy enoughly, the introduction of the subject --> The introducing of the subject
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What are grammatical rules?
'The last i knew about it --> I knowed about it
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What is a phrase error?
'My sister went to the Grand Canyon' -> 'the Grand Canyon went to my sister'
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Not all logically possible speech errors do occur, therefore?
A stop gradient --> A top sgradient, although a speaker can say: Itsganna rain(It is going to rain), conclusion: There is a mechanism that monitors the phonological legality of the utterance
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Units that interact in speech errors are what?
One and the same type
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What is word/Morpheme exchange?
On the room to my door
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What is the phoneme exchange?
The dear old queen --? The queer old dean. Conclusion: There must be processing components that are dedicated to these types of units
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Units in speech errors have what characteristics in common?
Word exchanges: "Older men choose to tend younger wives" Exchanged words belong to the same syntactic category (e.g., verb, noun) (Nooteboom, 1969; Fromkin, 1971). The exchanged words do not necessarily share phonological similarity.
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What are phoneme exchanges?
Heft lemisphere (swapping around letters), exchanged phonemes are phonologically similar. Exchanged phonemes are often found in phonologically similar environments
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What is the conclusion?
Processes that work with particular types of units are sensitive to certain context characteristics and not other
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What is the distance between source and intrusion?
Phoneme exchange (e.g., "do you reel feally bad") Word exchange (e.g., "guess whose mind came to name")
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What does the distance between source and target depend on?
The type of unit that is involved in the speech error, phoneme exchanges: often neighbouring words, word exchanges: larger distances
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What is the conclusion?
This distinction supports the idea that there are different levels of processing
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What are word exchanges? and characteristics?
On the door to my room, Same syntactic category, open class words, phonologically different, relatively large distance between words/phrases, stress pattern remains the same
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What is the conclusion?
Words are inserted into a slots of syntactic frame. Frame includes labels for syntactic categories, no phonological information present in the frame
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What are word substitutions?
Errors that occur during lexicalisation (a) Semantic related speech errors "sword" -> "arrow" (b) Phonological related (malapropisms) (Similar sounding words are exchanged) "conSIdered" -> "conSISted" "CAbinet" -> "CAtalog"
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What are mixed errors?
Lobster to oyster. Words are similar in terms of phonology and semantics, even processes that are different, they can still occur together
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Meyer 1992
Diagnosis of sound errors depends on listener judgements. Problem of the ambiguity of errors (e.g., shift or deletion). Some classes of errors are hardly ever observed (e.g., intonation, stress), but one need to analyse them in order to fully underst
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What do speech errors not reveal
Anything about the time course of the association of segments to positions, segments with syllables are stored in the mental lexicon or generated during phonological encoding
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What do speech errors not give?
Any information about the order of the processes involved other techniques are necessary
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How reliable are speech error databases?
Collectors bias: Online and Offline detection speech errors: 4 listeners online: between 7 and 25 speech errors 14 errors not detected at all none of the errors detected by all listeners 20 errors detected by 1 listener
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Baars, Motley and MacKay
Phonological bias technique
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What is lexical bias affect?
Induced sound errors tend to create words, however no lexical bias when items in the list are nonwords
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What is monitoring?
Users check the lexical status befroe articulation, no monitoring when items in the list are non words, non words are easier being detection and corrected by the monitor, non target words have a bigger chance of being missed
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What did Hartsuiker find?
More errors in 1 syllable words
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What is Dells Model?
Interactive connectionist model of speech production
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What does it suggest?
Semantic, lexical, and phonological representations interact. Units specify the syntactic, morphological, and phonological properties of words. Activation spreads from the sentence level to the morphological level and then to the phonological level.
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When is it most active?
Inserted into the current active slot of the frame, model can account for speech errors, lexical bias can be explained by the feedback between phonological and lexical levels
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What did Dell suggest?
Information flows from the sentences to single letters, all 3 are activated to understand words Cat and Rat can be mixed up because they are phonologically and semantically similar
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What is the three levels of language production?
Conceptualisation (Determine what to say), formulisation (Lexicalisation: selection of individual words, Synatic planning (Words are put together to form a sentence), phonological encoding, product of this process is a phonetic plan, articulation
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What was Levelt's model?
Conceptual (preverbal message) (No linguistic knowledge, thinking about what you want to say/intention) Formulator grammatical encoder phonological encoder Articulator Monitor
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What is the distinction between lemmas and lexemes?
Lemmas contain syntactic and meaning information, lexemes contain phonological information
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What is WEAVER?
Word Encoding by Activation and VERification
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What is Lexicalisation?
Thoughts underlying words are turning into sounds
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What does Lexical access involve?
2 stages: :Lexical selection, phonological encoding
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Where does the evidence come from?
Speech Errors Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Behavioural Experiments Electrophysiological Experiments e.g., van Turennout, Hagoort, & Brown (1998)
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Fay and Cutler
Two distinct types of whole word substitutions Semantic substitutions e.g., fingers -> toes husband -> wife Form-based substitutions (phonologically related word substitutions or malapropisms) equivalen t -> equivocal historical -> hysterical
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What uses the same lexicon?
Word production/comprehension
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What is the result of mistakes in different parts of the word retrieval process?
Phonological and semantic word substitutions
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Butterworth (1982)
Word retrieval is a two stage process
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Tip of the tongue phonemon
A noticeable temporal difficulty in lexical access
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What is it?
Universal: 2-year old children (Elbers, 1985) increase with old age (Burke et al., 1991) more common in bilinguals (Gollan & Acenas, 2004)
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What else?
Experimental (Brown & McNeill, 1966) "A navigational instrument used in measuring angular distances, especially the altitude of the sun, moon, and stars at sea"
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What are the two theories?
Partial activation hypothesis (Brown, 1970) Blocking or interference hypothesis (Woodworth, 1938) Interference with words
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Vigliocco, antonini and Garret?
Retrieval of grammatical gender is preserved in TOT states
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Badecker, Miozzo & Zanuttini (1995)
Evidence from an Italian person who suffered from word-finding difficulties (anomia). Details of grammatical gender available for words that they could not produce. Thus, access to lemmas but not to phonological forms.
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Schriefers, Meyer and Levelt (1990
First stage: Lemma retrieval (syntactic and semantic properties Second stage: Lexeme retrieval (phonological wordform information
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What is the paradigm?
Name a picture while a distractor word is presented auditory or visually
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What is stimulus onset asynchrony
Distractor word presented before (-), simultaneously, or after (+) the picture e.g., distractor = 'apple' , picture = 'lemon'
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What is the serial models predictions
Semantically related distractor words -> inhibition (relative to unrelated distractor words) for early SOA e.g., picture: BUREAU (translation: 'desk') Semantically related word: KAST (translation: 'closet') Unrelated word: MUTS (translation: 'cap)
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What is phonologically related distractor words?
Phonologically related distractor words -> facilitation (relative to unrelated distractor words) for later SOAs e.g., picture: BUREAU (translation: 'desk') Phonologically related word: BUURMAN (translation: 'Neighbour')
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What is the interactive model?
Effects of the phonologically and semantically related distractor words on the same SOAs
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What was the results of Schriefer et als study?
Support a two stage serial model of lexical access, mixed errors and the lexical bias effect must be explained by another theoretical notion such as an output editor or a monitor system
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Van Turennout et al (1998)
Brain activity during speaking: From Syntax to phonology in 40 MS. How do speakers translate thoughts into words? Focus on retrieval of distinct types of linguistic knowledge, taske involves the production of noun phrases: Biological prepardness
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What is Lateralized readiness potential?
LRP is derived from the readiness or Bereitschaft potential, readiness potential is a movement related brain potential that occurs before a movement is executed
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What was the task?
Naming response or a syntactic phonological classification task before naming response. Dutch: De = common gender, het = neuter gender
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What was found in the results?
The signal already occured before the button was pressed
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What were the conclusions of Turennout et al?
LRP developed not only for go trials, but initially also for no go trials, syntactic gender of a noun is retrieved before its abstract phonological properties,
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what were the second conclusions of Turennout et al?
370 ms after picture onset the LRP develops for go/no-go trials; 410 ms after picture onset the two LRP diverge sharply. It takes about 40 ms to retrieve a noun's initial phoneme once the syntactic gender has been retrieved
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What is the LEmma representation?
Semantic and syntactic features --> grammatical encoding,
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What is the LExeme representation?
Phonological features --> phonological encoding
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What does TOT suggest?
Syntactic and phonological information are independent, however, italian speakers can sometimes retrieve partial phonological information when they cant retrieve the gender of the word. No correlation between gender and phonology
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Caramazza's model?
No lemmas needed, interaction between lexical semantic network, syntactic network and form network
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What is the evidence for this?
Subjects are able to retrieve gender and initial phoneme of words in TOT states (Caramazza & Miozzo, 1997). - Retrieval of syntactic features is not required to successfully activate the phonological form in brain damaged subjects
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What else?
Brain damaged subjects show grammatical deficits that are modality specific
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Card 2

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Meringer and Mayer?

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Collected and analysed for the first time spontaneously produced speech erros

Card 3

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What is the speaking rate?

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Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

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What are spoonerisms?

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Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

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Such errors in production are called what?

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