Motivations and Goals

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What is motivation?
Questions regarding the origins, drives, predictors of motivation and behaviour are addressed by many areas of psychology
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What is biological psychology?
Neural mechanism by which different association and readiness are activated
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What is personality?
How people differ in inherent levels of motivation and propensity to act
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What is social psychology and example?
How other people and context influence motivation, for example does the presence of others spur you to cycle faster in a competition?
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Geen, 1995 Motivation definition?
Driving force behind volitional behaviour and determines the strength, direction, persistence of behaviour
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What are biological needs?
Serve the evolutionary purpose of surviva and are powerful influence on motivation
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What do humans also have?
Psychological needs for 'self actualisation' or 'autonomy', explains motivated behaviour such as exploratory behaviour (seeking tasks)
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What are examples of biological needs?
Food, warmth, sex
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What are examples of psychological needs?
Self-actualisation - achieving your full psychological potential
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How is that done?
Self fulfilment so will differ from person to person.
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What is autonomy?
Independence, freedom from external control or needs.
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What is motivational theory?
Five needs systems which account for most our behaviour
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What is the bottom four of maslows hierarchy of needs?
Deficiency needs
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What happens if you're in these?
Cognitive and esthetic needs sometimes inserted after esteem needs.
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What does a transcendent needs sometimes?
They are put after self actualisation - this is the idea that you support others to become self actualised
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How many people make it to the top?
2%
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What is motivation theorised to be?
Pluralistic behaviour where people may pursue needs on several different levels at the same time
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For example?
You might eat at the same time as socialising with friends for example
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What has evidence supported?
The existence of these different needs but the evidence on the hierarchical nature of these is mixed
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What did Dunning's motivations theory?
Desire for knowledge, desire for coherence, affirmation of competence leads to motives for social judgemen
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What is desire for knowledge?
Power of curiosity
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What were participants shown?
Participants shown photographs of individuals body parts (Loewenstein et al., 1992), self reported curiousity, given choice of $0.50 bonus payment or seeing whole photograph, Curiousity increased with the number of body parts viewed
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What is the positive relationship between?
Feelings of knowing and curiousity, e.g. when someone previously considered unfit wins a tennis court
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What enhances curiousity and motivations?
Issues that familiar in which we have some expertise, when new information violates expectations
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When consequences for themselves what happens?
When accountable for behaviour
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When accountable for what?
Consider more alternatives, spend more effort integrating factors, less likely to succumb to biases, make better quality judgements
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However also?
Give too much weight to irrelevant information, can bias beliefs towards those they are accountable to
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What is the need for control?
Knowledge enables prediction and control, questioning people's control subsequently makes them more competent in social cognitive tasks
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Pittman and Pittman, 1980
High, low or no helplessness training - identify concepts on cards.
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What do low helplessness group made?
More accurate attributions about essay writing causes than control group
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What was inferred?
Weaker attitudes when people wrote essays for pay than those who wrote essays privately, more hostile and anxious
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What happened to performance in the high helplessness group?
It declines, more depressed and anxious
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What is a positive self esteem?
We all think we are above average
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What is it hard to do?
Demonstrate biases are prompted just by self esteem motives, self serving attribution bias
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What is this due to?
Insight into personal efforts and capabilities rather than just self esteem
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What does self affirmation fail to do?
Show up in certain contexts you might think it would
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What are people given chane to do?
Examine information that affirmed or didn't recent decision (Car purchase)
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What did they look more at?
Threatening info
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What is the desire for coherence?
Motivated to reduce contradition in our worlds
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What are the 3 examples of cognitive dissonance?
Forced compliance, effort justification and free choice
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What is forced compliance?
Perform an action that goes against beliefs and if no external justification (Payment), end up changing beliefs
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What is effort justification?
Participants value things they work hard for (Hazing)
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What is free choice?
After choosing one thing, people tend to denigrate the other
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Does cognitive dissonance really exist?
May be dispassionate cognitive process: Though negative affect is reported. Only important inconsistences cause dissonance
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Deci, 1971
College students asked to solve problems across 3 sessions. 1st unpaid, in second session half paid per answer generated
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What was the question?
Who spent more time working on puzzle during free time in second session?
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What were the two groups?
Paid group, unpaid group
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What was the second experiment?
- College students asked to solve problems across 3 sessions. 1st unpaid, in 2nd session half paid per answer generated, in 3rd session none paid again
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What happened in the middle of the 3rd session?
Experimenter left room and gave participant free time. Who spent more time working on puzzle during free time in 3rd session. previously paid group, previously unpaid group
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What was found?
Paid students spent more time solving puzzles
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What happened when reward was removed?
Spent less time
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What might intrinsic motivation be undermined by?
If they are induced to engage as a means to an extrinsic goal
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What happened?
Rewarding people for an interesting activity --> Attribute their behaviour to the extrinsic reward rather than to intrinsic interest
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What is the self determination theory?
Autonomy - self determination, competence - successful attainment of goals, relatedness - dev and maintenance of close personal relationships
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What is intrinsic motivation?
Enjoyment/satisfaction
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What is extrinsic motivation?
External pressure/demands/ rewards
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What is said about the theory of motivation?
Says we have 3 innate basic needs that are essential for psychological growth, integrity, well being
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What is autonomy?
The idea that the goals are individual to you and self determined. And also competency - the psychological need to see yourself as ables
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What are focus on positive needs?
no negative drives included here, only needs that are positive for optimal functioning
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What don't we need to do?
Directly fulfill these needs but our behaviour often fulfills these needs and when it does, it supports intrinsic motivation and better learning, performance and well being
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What does SDT theories that motivation lies on?
A continuum from intrinsic motivation to extrinsic motivation where intrinsic motivation is self determined and regulated and activities are carried out for person enjoyment
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Or satisfaction for what?
Extrinsic motivation where people are regulated by external demands or processes such as parental controls
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If needs not met then what?
Ill health and darker sides of human nature: Psychopathology, prejudice and aggression
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What is Amotivation?
A state in which people lack the intention to behave and therefore aren’t motivated at all. This may happen when people have no sense of efficacy or control.
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Therefore what happens when people are forced to do something?
They are amotivated they have no intention or motivation
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What is extrinsic motivation?
can be characterised by various different regulation styles that are motivated by different sources. These vary on a continuum according to the extent to which they are controlled vs autonomous.
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What is introjected regulation?
involves some kind of self-control by the individual, there will be some kind of inner conflict between what they want to do and what they know they ought to do
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Like what?
They have really learnt the rule but not become part of the self (I must eat my broccoli otherwise I shouldnt have pudding)
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What is identified regulation?
Involves more self control where the rules are more understood and valued by the individual. So they have accepted the rule as important to them
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What is integrated regulation?
is the most integrated of the extrinsic motivations and where the individual identifies with the rules and then also additionally integrates the value with other aspects of the self, so it really becomes part of the way they think about themselves
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What is this?
Fully self determined extrinsic motivation
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Why is it extrinsic motivation?
Differentiated from intrinsic motivation because it still does not mean that the person does something because they enjoy it
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What does cognitive evaluation theory examine?
The effects of rewards, feedback and other external events on the intrinsic motivation
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What are underlying motivations?
Primarily the innate psychological needs - competence and autonomy
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What do effects of external events depend on?
Functional significance for perceived autonomy and perceived competence
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What could rewards do?
The sole driver of behaviour or as indicators of competence
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What is it related to?
Relatedness features in interpersonal context, extent which context is controlling or not controlling
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What is CEt in comparison to SDT?
Sub theory
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What does CET examine?/
intrinsic motivation and it’s relationship with rewards, feedback and other external events. How it interacts with other things and how it might be increased or decreased.
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What are underlying intrinsic motivation?
needs for competence and autonomy and relatedness so the effects of external events on intrinsic motivation will depend on how they are perceived for autonomy and competence.
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If rewards are considered the only reason for behaviour then what will intrinsic motivation be?
Low
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But what could rewards also be perceived for?
indicator of competence in which case that reinforces the psychological need for competence and intrinsic m otivation is reinforced
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What is cue value?
competence information salient
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For example?
o E.g. You got that prize because you’re so good at that! Most people didn’t manage that!
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What are verbal rewards/
informational aspect salient thus increases IM
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But what can it be perceived as?
Controlling, leads to undermining IM
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For example?
You must keep up the good work! Importance of interpersonal context
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Leeper, Greene and Nisbett (1973) experiment
Field study with 3-5 year old nursery children
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What did 51 participants show?
Intrinsic interest in target activity randomly allocated to 1 of 3 conditions
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What was the first condition?
Expected reward condition: Group asked to draw pictures and rewards promised for the best drawing
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What is the second condition?
Non rewarded condition: Group drew pictures, without the promise of a reward
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What is the third condition?
Unexpected reward condition: Group drew pictures and given a surprise reward
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What is the overjustification effect?
Rewards indicate that cause of behaviour is external
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What is the undermining effect?
Similar
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What do they both indicate?
Salient rewards undermine IM, both indicate when positive competence info provided, less likely to undermine IM
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What does the undermining effect focus on?
Perception of being controlled (Diminished autonomy)
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For overjustification effect, what are rewards considered?
In advance, activity undertaken to obtain goal
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What happens for not expected rewards?
Not predicted to affect intrinsic motivation
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What happens for expected rewards?
There are a typology of reward contingencies
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What are task non contingent rewards?
IM not affected
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What is engagement contingent reward?
Rewards controlling, little/no competence affirmation --> Undermine IM
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What is completion contingent rewards?
Reward indicates competence but not strong relative to controlling aspect --> Undermine IM
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What is performance contingent reward?
Perceived as controlling --? Strong undermining of IM. Can convey competence info --> IM effects mixed interpersonal context can influence
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What does Task non contingent rewards do?
those given for something other than the target activity – e.g. simply participating (think course credits for participating in studies)
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What is engagement contingent?
Dependent on engaging with the activity but don't require completing it (You have to try)
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What is completion contingent?
Dependent on completing the target task (YOu have to finish the study)
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What is performance contingent?
For performing the activity well or reaching some criterion
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What is meta analysis of undermining effects?
Across all studies rewards significantly undermined IM for subsequent free choice behaviour, unexpected rewards did not effect IM
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What is expected rewards?
 Task non-contingent rewards did not effect IM
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What is the completion contingent rewards undermine?
IM and self interest
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What does the performance contingent rewards undermine?
IM but not self reported interest
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What do Salient rewards result in?
An even stronger undermining effect
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What do verbal rewards?
Enhance IM for college students but not children (No undermining in either group)
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What are tangible rewards more?
Detrimental for children
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What do positive verbal feedback enhance?
IM (Though not for children)
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Controllingly administered what?
Verbal rewards undermined IM (You must keep up the good work)
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What are the alternative explanations?
 Behaviours rewarded are culturally valued  Performing them without reward part of basis for approval
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What do people interpret private events using?
Cultural descriptions including approval
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When under external control do not make what?
Use of private descriptions but rather follow instructions
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When rewards are unrelated to performance people feel what?
Helpless (Misinterpreted as reductions in IM)
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When rewards are dependent on actions, what?
Rewards facilitate learned industriousness
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Rewarded people may what?
Attribute performance less to themselves
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What do trans situational goals serve as?
guiding principles in life of a person or group o differ from attitudes as are more general and abstract
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What are 10 basic values relevant to?
All societies
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What are values organised into?
A structure where some complement and some inhibit others develop from social and psychological conflict and congruity between values that people experience in every day life
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What was tested?
Universality of values through self report using cross sectional surveys
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What is included ?
Members of 8 religions and athiests, primarily teachers and undergraduates
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How was it analysed?
Using smallest space analysis
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What is represented?
Values as points in space so distances between points reflect the empirical relations between importance ratings
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What order values are there?
Openness to change, self transcenence, self enhancement, conservation
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What is conformity?
restraint of actions, inclinations and impulses likely to upset or ham others and violate social expectations or norms (subordination to people that you have frequent interaction with – e.g. parents, bosses)
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What is tradition?
respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ieas that ones culture or religion impose on the self (subordination to more abstract objects, e.g. religious and cultural customs and ideas
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What is broader shared goal?
subordination of self in favour of socially imposed expectations
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What does Hedonism straddles opennes to change and self enhancement types of values what?
shares elements of both higher order value types
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What does similar to self enhancement values types in what?
focus on self but not characterised by same competitive motivation that achievement and power express, or motivation to get rid of uncertainty.
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What does hedonism express?
express some motivation for arousal and challenge that charaterise the openness to change values
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What is the dynamic relations between values?
- Actions in pursuit of values can be compatible or may conflict with the pursuit of other values
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What are actions?
They express obedience may
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What is conflicted?
actions intended to express independence - be compatible with actions promoting social order
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What do adjacent value types are what?
assumed to be most compatible, increasing distance indicates decreasing compatibility and greater conflict
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What are critiques?
Whilst values appeared in most cultures examined, not all grouped in the same way
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What is spirituality unaccounted for?
In the model because it only appeared in some cultures examined
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What are values?
- Values may be expressed differently in actions by different people and could be argued to be of little consequence on their own
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What may values be normatively approved as?
Ideals rather than personal value priorities
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Maio et al (2009)
 Participants asked to rank 16 values (from Schwartz)  Shown (fictitious) average ratings from rest of the student sample
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What was prioritised?
Either self enhancement; self transcendent, conversation or openness to change values
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What was identified?
Top 4 values of others and themselves, examined differences and similarities
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What was read?
Wrote about characteristics of other group, control group read a passage and memorised words, ranked 16 further different values
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What did motivations engage with?
Energy behaviour
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What is cost motivations?
Self enhancement values
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What is env motivations?
Self transcendence values
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What is self enhancement reasons for?
for self transcendence actions may less ineffective  No diff in effectiveness for energy behaviour
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What is self regulation?
o Purposeful, self corrective, adjustments to pursue personal goals
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What is possible future self?
o Unrealised future potential; what you might be. o Gives us direction and purpose
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What is the self discrepancy theory?
Compare actual self to 'ideal or 'ought' self
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What is the ideal self?
Personal desires for the self
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What is ought self?
o Implies acting to avoid a punishment (e.g. disapproval) o Primarily prevention focused (avoiding negative judgement) o Resulting in anxiety/guilt or relief
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What are incentives?
– high order desired outcome (subsuming lower order goals), e.g. gain money
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What is need?
personal forces that narrow down classes of incentives e.g. need for social power
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What are goals?
– lower order aims that serve incentives e.g. get a part time job
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What are assigned goals?
 perceived as desirable and feasible  they are personal redefined  integrated with other existing goals
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What are self set goals?
 tend to be desirable and feasible
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