Foragers (Gatherers, fishers and hunters)

What are anthropologists interested in that makes them study this area based on groups?

They are interested in what makes people stay in groups

1 of 120

How are hunter-gatherers in today's society based on geographically and resources?

They are restricted entirely to marginal environments and countries with scarce resources

2 of 120

How does this contrast with before agriculture?

Hunters and gatherers were everywhere,

3 of 120

What was their primary subsistence?

They depended on edible plants and undomesticated animals from the wild,

4 of 120

What was their minimal dependence on?

Domesticated foods,

5 of 120

Outside of the Arctic and sub-Arctic zones, what do hunter gatherer groups mainly consume?

They mainly consume vegetable foods found through foraging, -Meat and hunting may be socially prioritised,

6 of 120

Give an example of a tribe who were foragers in which desert in Southern Africa?

The !Kung San, -In the Kalahari Desert,

7 of 120

For characteristics of forager groups, what does the group consist of and what are these

Bands which are loosely organised groups of nuclear families

8 of 120

Why might these groups split up or combine?

In accordance with the availability of resources,

9 of 120

Social organisation is often worked around egalitarian leadership. What it is?

It is not permanent or hereditary- Leaders have minimal power or wealth, - Often task-specific,

10 of 120

What are two main characteristics of foragers?

-Mobility, -Flexibility

11 of 120

For mobility, why are forager groups land extensive?

Foragers tend to live in small groups and need large territories

12 of 120

What is one reason why large territories are needed based on food?

1) As food and other resources become scarce, groups move to other areas of the territory,

13 of 120

Due to mobility, what are their houses like and an example?

They are mostly temporary, E.g. Inuit Igloos- They melt over the summer months,

14 of 120

How is flexibility associated with mobility and movement?

Groups split up or re combine at different times of year (depending on whether food and water supplies are more or less concentrated,

15 of 120

What is their technology like often?

Superficially simple and limited,

16 of 120

However, what of their knowledge and technology is extremely sophisticated?

Their environmental knowledge and how to employ this simple technology,

17 of 120

Almost everything they own is what in relation to mobility?

It is portable,

18 of 120

What food collecting activity is included in hunting and gathering but not "foraging" and why?

-Fishing, -As anthropologists see fishing as important in many societies,

19 of 120

Foraging is a mode of subsistence that has made up what percent of human history?

99%

20 of 120

What did anthropologists believe are humans and hunting in relation to evolution?

They believed that humans were the only "ape" to hunt

21 of 120

However, is this still believed?

No, it is now known that chimps hunt and eat meat quite systematically,

22 of 120

What 1960s fundamental assumption has now been undermined?

The precarious existence of hunter-gatherers

23 of 120

Until the 1960s, what was believed about where foragers lived?

It was believed they lived an uncertain existence in harsh environments

24 of 120

What is another assumption based on technology?

Technology was believed to be primative and limited,

25 of 120

What was believed about their organisation?

Their social organisation, including kinship, was simple and restricted,

26 of 120

What two things did most believe these things were caused by?

1) "Primitiveness" and 2) The ignorance of hunter-gatherers,

27 of 120

However, what were these views the result of?

Their views were the result of the ignorance of western observers,

28 of 120

It was also generally believed foragers were at the mercy of what?

An unpredictable climate and weather in relation to being on the verge of starvation,

29 of 120

What was believed about their food hunting and supply?

It was believed they were constantly struggling for enough food for survival and so had a "catch-as-catch-can" existence,

30 of 120

What was believed that they hadn't learnt yet?

How to explit the plants and animals,

31 of 120

How were these views rationalised for many?

They were rationalised by reference to life in industrialised (agriculturally dependent) societies,

32 of 120

For the rationalisation of hunter-gatherers in the 60s, while it was believed western societies were rich, what was believed about hunter-gatherers?

They were poor as they had few possessions,

33 of 120

While hunter-gatherer technology is primative, what is the technology of western societies like?

It is advanced,

34 of 120

While is is believed western societies have plenty of food, what is believed about hunter-foragers?

They are on the edge of starvation,

35 of 120

While it is believed we have leisure, partly due to our technology, what is believed about hunter-gatherers?

it is believed they have no leisure because they spend all their time trying to find enough to eat,

36 of 120

Therefore, what do these two beliefs show?

They show the simple assumptions many had without any evidence, and it shows they believed both societies were opposite,

37 of 120

However, in the 60s, where were more studies of hunter gatherers done?

In the semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics,

38 of 120

Give an example of those done?

!Kung San

39 of 120

What also changed with the older literature on hunter gatherers?

Many were studied and re-evaluated

40 of 120

As a result of these studies, what is now generally accepted about hunter-gatherer groups about their food base?

They have a food base which is with minor exceptions adequate and reliable,

41 of 120

What is this reliable food base in spite of based on nature?

Often "hostile" and highly variable natural environment

42 of 120

What is now accepted based on comparisons with farmers?

Their expend was considerably less effort than most farmers to provide for their physical needs,

43 of 120

What is also accepted about ageing?

They often live to a ripe old age with few signs of anxiety or insecurity, often due to how little work they did,

44 of 120

For example, how long did the average adult work to get food among the !Kung San?

Adults on average spent 2.5 days of 6 hours each per week

45 of 120

How much food could a woman gather to feed her family in one day?

In one day, a woman could feed her family for 3 days with the amount she gathered

46 of 120

For their population composition, how many does Lee argue are over 60? What is this comparable to?

10% are more than 60 years old, -To the industrialised world in the mid 20th century,

47 of 120

What people continue to be supported by others in the !kung San?

Crippled, blind and senile,

48 of 120

How are young people treated in this tribe?

They joined the work force late, and often postponed adult responsibilities until about the age of 20,

49 of 120

What percent of the tribe do the young and old together make despite being unproductive?

40%

50 of 120

What tribal societies were re-evaluated in the 60s to produce new assumptions?

Native Americans of the North American Northwest coast,

51 of 120

For earlier studies of native americans, What was their main source of food?

They were largely dependent on the exploitation of marine and riverline resources,

52 of 120

Give two example to show the Native Americans had a highly complex and sophisticated culture?

1) Complex kinship systems, 2)Complex political systems

53 of 120

What well-developed culture did they have?

A well-developed material culture,

54 of 120

What was their housing like?

They had permanent settlements with substantial housing which were inhabited at least half the year,

55 of 120

Also from earlier studies, what was believed about their food sources?

That they had a dependable and abundant food supply,

56 of 120

However, for a re-evaluation, what was their main food supply actually like?

Supplied of food were varied from year to year,

57 of 120

While feasting and hospitality were seen as a social feature, what has this been re-interpreted as?

As having important food re-distribution functions during periods of scarcity in particular areas,

58 of 120

What did this feasting and hospitality allow?

IT allow for the need to re-distribute mechanisms and iron out local food scarcities and over supplies of food

59 of 120

What was another previous assumption made by anthropologists re-evaluated in the 80s about hunter-forager groups?

The timelessness of hunter groups

60 of 120

What did studies in the 60s and 70s emphasise about hunter-gather groups about a link between behaviour and the environment?

It emphasised that particular adaptations and behaviour patterns were heavily dependent on environmental factors (e.g. nature of food supply)

61 of 120

What was also accepted about hunter-gatherer groups being in "refuge"?

It was believed they were in "refuge" areas, where agriculture was impossible as an alternative means of making a living,

62 of 120

Also until the 80s, what was assumed due to the fact hunting and gathering was the original mode of subsistence for humans?

It was assumed that societies studied had remained in most cases little changed for thousands- even tens of thousands- of years,

63 of 120

However, what is now believed about hunter-gatherer groups?

That they have repeatedly changed and adjusted to new challenges,

64 of 120

Who were studied by anthropologists to show this adaptation to new challenges?

The Plains Indians

65 of 120

What did Europeans introduce to the Americas?

Horses,

66 of 120

How was hunting originally undertaken by Indians and what was the problem with this?

Bison-hunting was done on foot, which limited the ability to get close,

67 of 120

What did they use to transport materials apart from carrying it themselves?

The dog travois (An A frame dragged behind an animal)

68 of 120

Therefore, what did transportation limit in social terms?

It limited camp mobility and tent size,

69 of 120

What did the introduction of horses allow?

Greater mobility on horses, better ability to hunt with less danger and easier to transport materials,

70 of 120

Therefore, what is the "typical" Plains Indian culture and when was this developed?

-Highly mobile and heavy dependent on hunting bison through horses, -It emerged in the 1700s after they had adapted to a horse-based way of life,

71 of 120

How else did the Native Americans adapt to European presence?

Through trade- They became dependet on exchanging hunted products with European traders,

72 of 120

What company's documents in the 1740s indicates a heavy dependence on exchanging beaver pelts for what?

-Hudson's Bay COmpany, -European firearms and cloth,

73 of 120

What "traditional" culture depended heavily on the rifle?

The Inuit culture,

74 of 120

What did they use to hunt before this? what was the problem?

-harpoon, -When the sea ice broke up in spring, seals would lie on ice flows and so were difficult to catch,

75 of 120

What did rifles allow?

It allowed more effective seal hunting,

76 of 120

Why was it also important to have an effective seal hunt other than for the tribe?

Sleds were drawn by considerable numbers of dogs dependent on large supplies of the meat killed from the rifle,

77 of 120

For band-level societies, some 50 years ago what did some anthropologists begin to recognise based on variability and chaos of organisation?

They noticed the enormous amount of variability in the ways in which societies ensured that they didn't degenerate into the chaos of everyone against everyone else,

78 of 120

Therefore, what aspect of society are they questioning?

They are asking how different societies around the world are organised, -Their political organisation,

79 of 120

What did anthropologists focus on when dividing societies into different types?

They looked at how much centralised organisational power there was in them,

80 of 120

What is this centralised organisation power otherwise known as?

Political integration or political centralisation,

81 of 120

What did they create of levels of politically centralised power and what does this mean?

Typology, -Development sequence,

82 of 120

What were the level ranges of politically centralised power?

From simple e.g. lacking any centralised power, to complex, which had highly centralised political power,

83 of 120

What order did they put different societies in from simple to complex?

Band -> Tribes -> Chiefdom -> States

84 of 120

What society structure have most anthropologists noticed about band-level societies?

The "band" level societies- They are the lowest, least politically centralised level in this typology

85 of 120

FOr characteristics of band level societies, how do they live via food supplied?

They live by hunting, gathering and fishing,

86 of 120

What is their population like?

Often small, generally around 50 but never more than 100, and thinly scattered,

87 of 120

Why is the group generally fluid?

As the society often changes size over the year due to food availability etc.

88 of 120

Why are groups mobile?

As they can move over large distances,

89 of 120

For another characteristic, what is their technology like?

it is often simple and portable, but knowledge behind it is highly sophisticated,

90 of 120

What social structure/ leadership do they often have?

Egalitarian- It is task specific no inherited,

91 of 120

What is their legal structure like?

They have no legal structure- No legal enforcement possible,

92 of 120

How are difficult dispute often solved?

By one party leaving the group,

93 of 120

How are decisions made?

Through group consensus,

94 of 120

What is another feature based on kinship?

Kinship is cognatic, so via both males and females,

95 of 120

What is the last main feature of band level societies?

They are flexible

96 of 120

When are "band level societies" a useful concept and examples of groups that are this?

It is useful when discussing generally highly dispersed and politically uncentralised societies, such as the Aboriginals, the Inuits,

97 of 120

However, give some example where this description would be inappropriate?

1) North American Great Plains- Many have powerful Chiefs, 2) North American NW coast fishing dependent communities,

98 of 120

Why would it be inappropriate for these groups to be classed as band level?

AS they had considerable social and political stratification, with chiefs in charge of their groups,

99 of 120

Therefore, what is it not possible to say about band level societies and hunter-forager groups?

It is not possible to say all hunter-gatherer groups are band-level societies, but many of them are,

100 of 120

However, what are all band level societies?

Hunter gatherers,

101 of 120

Why is the concept of band level societies also useful?

AS it shows the simplest level in a typology of increasing socio-political centralisation of power leading up to modern nation states such as the USA and CHina,

102 of 120

Although, why can there arguably be a hidden agenda for some anthropologists about this?

AS an interest in the "primitiveness" of hunter-gatherer groups links to Marx's idea of original "primitive communism" via highlighting egalitarian aspects of their socieities

103 of 120

What are the two "classic" forager societies studied by anthropologists?

1) "Kung San of the Kalahari desert, 2) The Hadza of Tanzania, East Africa,

104 of 120

What does the !Kung San's diet consist of?

80% is comprised of vegetable foods,

105 of 120

Among many San groups, what specific vegetable food is widespread due to growing well in desert conditions?

The mongongo (mangetti) nut trees,

106 of 120

What percent do they make of their total diet? How many do they eat a day?

50%, -A handful a day,

107 of 120

What do the contain subsistence wise in comparison to cooked rice?

They contain 5 times the calories and 10 times the protein,

108 of 120

What sex dominate the hunting? Is it successful often?

-Males, -No it is often unsuccessful in comparison to foraging,

109 of 120

If women gather vegetable food who does it belong to?

Her solely,

110 of 120

If men kill and gain meat, who does it belong to?

There is a strong ethic that the meat must be shared in a complex system which ensures everyone eats meat as often as everyone else,

111 of 120

What is one feature of this system based on the hunter and boasting and why?

The hnter must play down his success, -This is because meat is highly prized and so it reduced the risk of the hunters becoming dominant,

112 of 120

What is another feature of this system based on who the kill belongs to based on arrows?

The owner of the arrow which kills an animal distributes the meat. Since men use arrow loaned or given to them by others, it reduces the chance of better hunters achieving dominant status,

113 of 120

Where are the Hadza from?

Tanzania in East Africa,

114 of 120

What are Hadza huts made of?

Grass and leaves,

115 of 120

How did Woodburn describe the Hadza's food supply?

He observed "they meet their nutritional needs easily without much effort, much forethough, much equipment or much organisation",

116 of 120

What percent of the Hadza's diet does gathered food supplies make up?

80%

117 of 120

Where do the Hadza gain the other 20% from?

Meat brought back from camp, and wild bee honey taken from hives,

118 of 120

Do men often hunt?

They rarely hunt large game, but content themselves with vegetable foods and small animals,

119 of 120

Do the big-game hunters still share their meat?

Yes they readily share their meat with them as well as women and children,

120 of 120

Get Revising

Foragers (Gatherers, fishers and hunters)

Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Back

Card 3

Front

Back

Card 4

Front

Back

Card 5

Front

Back

Comments

Similar Anthropology resources:

Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Back

Card 3

Front

Back

Card 4

Front

Back

Card 5

Front

Back

Comments

Related discussions on The Student Room

Similar Anthropology resources: