Biology and Culture, Gender and Sexuality

What is there a debate about throughout the social sciences on the contributions of what to human behaviour?

There is a great debate about the contributions of biology on one hand and learning on the other to human behaviour,

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Why can anthropology contribute to this debate?

As it compared across cultures rather than focusing on western societies,

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"Social facts require _______/_____ explanations?

Sociological or cultural explanations,

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What is a fundamental principle in anthropology about biology?

That biology and environment cannot explain why people do things in a particular way,

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What two things does biology not explain specifically about cultures and behaviour?

1) Differences between specific cultures, 2) For why certain human behaviours are often thought of as universal,

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However, humans are also biological organisms. What question does this lead to?

How can we understand where biology stops and culture starts. The line is anything but clear,

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What two different issues emerge in anthropology based on culture and recurring features?

1) Can differences between cultures be explained in terms of biology? 2) Can certain regularly-recurring features in human cultures world-wide be explained in terms of biology?

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For the first issue, what as a way of explaining differences in whole socio-cultural systems is not supportable?

Biological determinism

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However, there are a number of aspects of individual cultures where there may be interplay between what?

Between physical/biological factors and cultural behaviour,

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Who studied the Yanomamo?

Napoleon Chagnon

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What did Chagnon emphasise about the Yanomamo men?

Yanomamo men emphasise 'fierceness' and a readiness to fight as the most important male behaviour trait,

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What is the chain that the Napoleon created about Yanomamo from "fierceness"?

Fierceness leads to social status and then social success,

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What does "fierceness" and "social status" lead to?

Having extramarital affairs,

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What does "social status" and "social success" lead to?

More wives,

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What does extramarital affairs and more wives lead to?

More children and therefore fierce genes,

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"Fierceness" is largely a product of what?

The social environment,

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However, what is also a component that the social environment encouraged

There is probably a genetic component that the social environment encourages, and which can be passed on genetically,

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Are these explanations of Yanomamo fierceness accepted by anthropologists?

These explanations are widely repeated, but it leaves a number of issues unaddressed,

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What percent of the male Yanomamo are killed in warfare?

25%

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What increases the chances of getting killed?

Repeated exposure to highly dangerous situations in a very warlike society,

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What will an early death mean for men based on the breeding pool?

An early death will remove a man from the breeding pool prematurely, hence reduce the proportion of children with his genes in the next generation,

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This argument suggests that what individuals may be at an evolutionary advantage?

Psychopathic individuals,

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However what have evolutionary psychologists argued about psychopathic individuals?

That a number of evolutionary psychologists have argued an increase in the number and aggressiveness of psychopathic individuals is unlikely to benefit the community as a whole,

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Children growing up in the household of a fierce man will have the best opportunities to what?

Learn from him how best to be 'fierce',

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For the second issue is there a biological component to a number of apparent "cultural universals", what is the problem anthropologists have answering this question?

1) There are very few types of behaviour that may anthropologists agree on as "cultural universals"- including the incest taboo, marriage,

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Give an example of the incest taboo?

The idea that its origin and purpose relates to stopping the deleterious effects of close in breeding is not especially easy to support,

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So is there no place for biology in understanding human behaviour?

No- There's plainly a biological component at some level which explains some aspects of how we behave,

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How do anthropologists view our primate heritage in group living?

Most don't consider our primate heritage,

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Even among monkeys and apes, what is is needed to be an acceptable member of the group?

Complex learned behaviours are necessary for an individual to be accepted,

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What allows group members to "get along" with each other and what is this part of?

-Group living and patterns of behaviour, -Seem to be part of our biological/evolutionary heritage,

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Therefore, is culture itself- the mental capacity to manipulate ___________, including other humans- part of our _______ __________?

-Manipulate the world around us, -Part of our biological inheritance,

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What is autism?

The inability to to function easily in social situations, it is essentially a form of biological abnormality which makes social communication and interaction difficult,

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What does Temple Grandin's autistic condition allow her to do?

It allows and helps her to understand how animals feel in a way that non-autistic people can not,

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What is Temple Gardin's work role?

Proessor of animal science, and consultant on animal behaviour to the livestock industry,

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What has her work had significant effects on?

The human management of animals, especially slaughter-houses,

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What is the definition of sex?

The biological differences between men and women,

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What is one of the most fundamental differences between females and males?

Females gestate and give birth to infants, then automatically lactate to feed them,

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Statistically, females tend to be what? (4)

-Be of shorter stature, -Be lighter in weight, -Be less robust in some bones, -Have less body hair,

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Sex is determined by how many factors at birth?

5

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For the first factor, what chromosome is looked for in one of the how many human chromosomes?

The presence or absence of a Y chromosome in one of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes,

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For the second factor, the type of gonads are located. What ate gonads?

Ovaries in females, testicles in males,

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For the third factor, what hormones are looked for?

Sex hormones

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For the fourth factor, what internal system is looked for?

The internal reproductive anatomy (such as the uterus in females)

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What is the last factor looked for?

The external genitalia,

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How has western society treated sex?

As either male or female- Our society has no intermediate

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How many people are born neither fully male or fully female?

As many as 1 or 2 in 1000

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What is this division from genetics often caused by?

Absence/ over abundance or pre-natal hormones

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However, how do different societies treat intersex people?

In different ways,

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Anthropologists question how different societies assign what in relation to sex?

Assign different culturally-constructed statuses, roles, functions and activities to sex,

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Anthropologists have also explored how different societies do what with intersex people?

They have explored how different societies do or don't recognise those who don't fit the norms of heterosexual male and female and the social roles of these individuals,

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What is the name of the Olympian who is intersex and what does she do?

Caster Semenya- Record breaking South African women's 800 metre runner

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Biologically what is believed about Caster Semenya?

Some people are born male, some female and some a mix of the two,

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what was the IAAF's reaction to this confusion and their result?

-They made her undergo tests to identify which sex she is, -They reported she has external female genitalia, but not ovaries or uterus, and undescended testes, but it was decided she was eligible to compete as a woman,

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What is the official definition of sex?

Classification of organisms as female, male or intersex on the basis of their reproductive organs and functions e.g. on the basis of biology,

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What is the official definition of sex?

Sexual identity, especially in relation to society or culture. The behavioural or cultural traits associated typically with one sex,

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Therefore, what is the term sex reserved for reference to in comparison to the term gender?

Sex is in reference to biological categories, while gender is used to refer to social or cultural categories,

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What is gender in society and what does this mean/

Culturally constructed- Characteristics that people attribute to biological males and females that are culturally, not biologically, determined,

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In what time period were differences between men and women played down by what thinkers?

-In the 1960s to 80s, differences were played down by liberal thinkers,

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The possibility that differences in attitudes and behaviours between males and females was viewed how?

It was rejected by some scholars,

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Give an example of a cultural difference in genders based on women and work?

Gendered division of labour,

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How do most societies divide their tasks?

Between people of different genders and ages depending on their abilities,

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What are some of these differences in labour based on and an example?

Physical differences- Some tasks require more strength while others can be done around child care,

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However, how are most tasks allocated?

They are allocated simply based on cultural norms for gender behaviour,

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What are two perceived stereotypes about gender divisions?

-"Man the hunter" -"Women's work"

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Give three examples of exclusively male tasks?

E.g. Hunting, trapping, woodworking, mining, lumbering, butchering etc,

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Give three examples of exclusively female tasks?

E.g. Gathering shell fish, wild plant foods, tending small animals, gathering fuel, fetching water, making clothes etc.

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However give an example of a case study of a woman who defies these divisions?

1842 Royal Commission interviewed a woman who worked in the coal mines- She wore a belt and chain used to haul coal wagons up to the surface,

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In most human societies, gender is similar to what?

The racial or caste distinction,

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What is the caste system and what does it involve?

-A social system in which social classes are rigidly differentiated, -Lower ranking gender or class kept from prestigious work,

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Jobs women do are automatically ranked as what?

Less important,

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What two jobs has the highest sexual stratification rating?

Agriculture and advanced horticultural herding,

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However, women's work is not necessarily what? What can it be?

It isn't necessary 'Light work'- Instead it can be physically demanding and crucial for survival,

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However, gender bias in anthropology meant what?

It meant that until feminists drew specific attention to the role of women in different societies, their contributions were often not considered worth studying,

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Gender is most obviously expressed through what?

A person's sexuality. Sexuality seems to have both biological and social origins,

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What medical report stirred up controversy about homosexual vs heterosexual males?

A medical report suggested there were biological differences between the brains of homosexual and heterosexual males. It stirred up great controversy,

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In addition, what has male homosexuality been linked to?

The birth order- thre more older brothers a boy has, the more likely he is to be gay,

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Gay Right campaigners comment on the fact that same-sexual activity can be found where>

It can be found in a wide rang of non-human species- They believe that there is a biological foundation to the behaviour,

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Concerns over same-sex sexual relations result from the fact they break basic what?

They break basic cultural category systems,

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Give a historical example of homosexuality being encouraged in Ancient Greece?

Men were encouraged to have sexual relations with boys before they turned 18- After this being 'penetrated' was feminine- In the army, younger men had an older general,

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Give a modern day example of homosexuality being encouraged?

The Etero of New Guinea are well known for their practice of ritually enforced homosexual activity- Inspired by their belief semen has special virtue,

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However, even in this tribe homosexual relations are closely controlled by what?

Cultural rules and defined by a cultural definition of the definition of the differences between men and women,

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Give the name of Native American people who have multiple gender identities?

Two spirit people

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Two spirit men took on many of what roles in a society where typical male behaviour was often what?

-They took on the status and roles of women, -Violence,

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How do the Two Spirit people often dress and what social behaviour do they assume?

-They dress as women and perform women's work, and assume social behaviour normally considered appropriate for women,

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Why is it a problem that the cultural context of the two spirit men in the 19th century no longer exist?

-There are many unanswered questions about them, partly because early European observers in the 19th century taking an ethnocentric point of view, overemphasised the homosexuality aspect of male behaviour,

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Recent studies note what between individuals of the two spirit?

Wide variability,

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However, what four characteristics are wide spread, although not universal?

1) Cross-gender occupation or work activities, 2) Transvestitism, 3) Associations with special spiritual powers, 4) same-sex relationships,

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Is it believed that men choose to become two spirited? How does it come about?

-No -They did so after receiving visions,

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What is one way of explaining this phenomenon based on men and violence?

Many native American socieities feature brutal and violent behaviour among men, and so it becomes an escape route for males,

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However, what doesn't this explain?

The continued existence and acceptance of two-spirited people in Native American society,

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Also in Native American socieities, what have some biological women done?

Took on multiple gender identities,

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What is the definition of Ninawaki and what roles do they take in society?

-Manly-hearted women, -They hunted and took on male roles, -They even married another woman who fulfilled female tasks,

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Who is there great debate between about how to explain the exact nature of what it is to be two spirited?

Anthropologists and gay/lesbian literature,

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Why has become clear that the debate which occurs among people of European background doesn't work?

As they view the phenomenon in European cultural terms, these don't seem to work in Native American terms,

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What does Albanian Virgjinesha mean?

Sworn virgins,

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What do some Albanian women do as "sworn virgins"?

They would 'give-up' their femaleness and retain their virginity to live and work as men,

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What are three reasons why women do this?

1) Financial hardships 2) Death of male kin 3) Clear desire to live as a man,

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What is the name of those who are 'third gender' in Samoa?

Fa'afafine

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The native culture of Samoa accept some men don't fit what?

They don't fit the binary concept of biological male and masculine and biological female and feminine roles,

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What does Fa'afafine mean?

It means 'in the way of a woman',

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What are two different ways in which they live?

Some live as women, taking women's roles, while others live as men with particular feminine characteristics,

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Who do most fa'afafine have relationships with and who less so?

More- Men and less so women,

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How do they view the western concept of 'gay'?

They don't believe that it comfortably fits their status. Instead they are Third Gender

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Therefore, while native American societies have accepted roles based on what, both men and women have considerable flexibility over what?

-Sex, -Gender,

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Northern Albania's supremely patriarchal society retained what role for females?

A role that required women to act like men, without being male,

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In Samoan society, it is acknowledged that some males dont fit into what image?

They don't fit into the masculine side of the gender divide: they take on a thrid gender identity

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Therefore, these societies don't allow biology to control what?

To control strictly what men and women did,

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What interests cultural anthropologists about this?

The fact that humans take basic facts of the biological differences between men and women and then do very different things with them in different cultures globally,

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What are 2 questions to ponder?

1) Is culture as a general phenomenon part of our biological inheritance? 2) If gender is so manifestly a social creation, why are almost all societies sexually stratified in ways that benefit men?

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Biology and Culture, Gender and Sexuality

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