Edexel History - Medicine and Public Health

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Who are Asclepius' daughters?
Hygieia and Panacea
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What is Asclepius the god of?
Health and medicine
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What are the four humours in order of season (spring to winter)?
Blood (spring), yellow bile (summer), black bile (autumn), phlegm (winter)
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What were the water water pipes (in the Roman Empire) made out of?
Lead/wood
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Which did not TRANSPORT water in Roman Britain? Aqueducts, reservoirs, water pipes or sewers
Resevoirs
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What was the Greek understanding of the control of limb movement?
They found, when dissecting bodies in Alexandria in Egypt, that limb movement was controlled by the brain, and not by the heart (which was what was previously believed)
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What was the Greek understanding of the causes of disease?
That it was sent by the gods, or by others who had cursed you. However, Hippocrates had suggested that disease was caused by the environment (which meant that the understanding was on the path to truth).
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Until when did the theory of the four humours survive?
After 1700 AD
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Where would ordinary people go if they were sick during Greek times?
To the asclepion
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What are four contributions to medicine that Hippocrates made?
The Hippocratic Oath, Clinical Observation, the Hippocratic Corpus and he promoted the four humours (which encouraged other doctors to move away from spiritual beliefs)
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What does the Hippocratic Corpus contain?
Over 60 books written by Hippocrates and other Greek doctors, detailing symptoms, treatments and their effectiveness.
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What happened in an Asclepion?
People would exercise, rest and eat and then rest in the holy place (called the Abaton). At this place, the god Asclepius and his two daughters, Hygiea and Panacea, would come with two snakes and heal the patients.
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Why was war beneficial to the development of medicine in Greek times?
Because it allowed doctors to learn more about setting broken and dislocated bones (among other injuries). So, the Greek doctors became experts at practical first aid.
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What are 4 reasons for why war was important when thinking about Roman medicine?
It made the Romans realise the importance of public health (because unhealthy armies are useless), hospitals were needed, anatomical and surgical skills were further developed, and the capture of slaves brought Greek doctors to Rome.
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How did the Romans learn about the human body?
By dissecting animals (because human dissection was illegal in Rome). Galen recommended using monkeys as they walked on two legs, like men.
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Which two big mistakes did Galen make about human blood?
That it was made in the liver and was burned up as fuel for the muscles.
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What are four Roman causes of disease?
The stars (astrology), miasma (such as vapours from swamps), the four humours ...
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Why would surgical operations inside the body have been difficult for the Romans?
Because they didn't have anesthetics
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Which two places did Galen develop his medical skills and who was he the personal physician for?
Alexandria in Egypt, a gladiators school and then worked for the Roman Emperoe
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What was one bad thing about Roman hospitals?
They were not open to train the public so the knowledge that was gained inside them had little impact on the lives of normal people
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Which two ideas (that impacted the future of medicine) did Roman doctors develop?
Bad air and tiny creatures (though both of these ideas were reasonably undeveloped
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What are 6 reasons for disease that Medieval people believed in?
God's wrath, astronomy, imbalanced humours, stagnant water, Jewish people and miasma
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For many Christians during medieval times, what did your outer body represent?
What your soul was like (if you showed any deformity or illness then it would reflect a tainted soul
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How was waste disposed of in Medieval times?
Public latrines were built over rivers and open drains and cesspits were also flushed into rivers and streams. However, the rich had private privies.
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Why was the waste disposal system during Medieval times so flawed?
Because people drank from the rivers that were contaminated.
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Where were the three sources of water during Medieval times?
Rivers and streams, private seller (cleanliness was not guaranteed, freshwater pumped straight into monasteries (generally only for monks and nuns who lived there)
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What are some limitations of the churches training doctors during Medieval times?
They focused on Galen's teachings and students were taught not to question his theories let alone learn about accurate anatomy.
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Why did few doctors study medicine under the church during Medieval times?
Because it was a ten year course of which only a small part was dedicated to medicine
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By when did medical schools become independent from the church?
By the Reformation in the 16th century
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What were hospitals during Medieval times like?
Small, generally set up by Christians who wanted to follow the teachings of the bible (that people should help the sick). They were also God oriented.
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How were many Medieval hospitals God oriented?
Put emphasis on prayer, bad faced towards alter, no young women were allowed to be maids as to not distract the inmates from their prayers
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Why were many Medieval hospitals bad?
Because they focused on cures (and not why specific cures worked) rather than prevention. They also put strong emphasis on God and religion and did not admit people with infectious diseases
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Why were the education and health systems in Medieval Britain so bad?
Because the predecessors to Medieval Biritain split into smaller groups, each governed by a local Lord, and these states didn't have enough money to provide public health systems or universities
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Why were most peasants very superstitions?
Because they were dominated by the Roman Catholic Church who governed politics, everyday life and medicine. And because there was a great emphasis on authority, people believed what they were told
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What are 5 reasons for medical stagnation in the Middle Ages?
Medical knowledge was lost, the church forbade dissection and encouraged prayer and superstition, people believed what they were told without question, resources to build public health systems was scarce, and there was social disorder and war
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What are four ways in which the Church contributed to medical stagnation?
Forbade human dissection, heavily encouraged Galen's ideas, encouraged reliance on prayer and superstition, decided that illness was a punishment from God (encouraged fatalism and prevented investigation into cures)
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How did the Church help Britain come out of medical stagnation?
They encouraged people to go on pilgrimages to the Middle East where they were met with Muslim doctors (who had more advanced medical knowledge than the Brits)
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Once universities were established, why were they not so great?
Anatomical lectures were rudimentary and often included readings from texts such as Galen's work
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Why was the lack of dissection so bad during the Middle Ages? Example?
Because it lead to numerous errors. For example, an Italian doctor, Alderotti said that the hair 'comforts the hair'
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Why did many at the time think that medicine was progressing during the Middle Ages?
There were schools of medicine, the writings of Muslim doctors became available, doctors debated treatment methods, there was a Uni (Padua Uni) that insisted that doctors visited the sick during their training
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How were the Medieval people decieving themselves (when they thought that medicine was progressing)?
Uni lectures was just when a doctor read from a book while someone pointed at a diagram, debates between doctors were simply held for the sake of debate - not to come to an answer, doctors had horrible reps
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Did doctors during the Middle Ages have bad reputations? Example?
Yes, e.g. during the black death doctors were "useless and indeed shameful as they dared not visit the sick for fear of becoming infected" wrote Guy de Chailiac
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During the medical renaissance, what did cauterising change to?
Ligatures
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What is cauterising?
The burning of flesh to close a wound and stop infection and blood loss
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What did improvements in painting during the Renaissance lead to in the renaissance?
More accurate drawings which means a better understanding of the human anatomy
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What did the 'revival of learning' during the Renaissance lead to?
Scientific method - which involved experiments, observations and the finally conclusions
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What was good about the invention of the printing press?
New ideas could spread across whole countries (and even the whole of Europe) quickly and the information was consistent
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How can the invention of new weapons be argued to be a good thing for Renaissance medicine?
That soldiers were getting new wounds so a doctor/surgeon's knowledge broadened
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Why was it difficult for Renaissance doctors to prove some of their ideas?
Because germ theory was not yet a thing, and had little explanation for their ideas
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What is a bezoar?
A stone that grows in the stomach of a goat found in the Middle East. It was believed to be an antidote to poison
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How did Vesalius find out what he did?
He robbed graves and performed dissections and stuff
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What was Vesalius' book called and what was special about it?
'The Fabric of the Human Body', it contained detailed and annotated drawings
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What did Vesalius do?
He disproved some of Galen's ideas. When Galen said that the jaw was made of two bones, Vesalius proved that it was made of one
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What are two ways in which Vesalius had a positive influence on medicine?
He opened people's eyes as they begun to realise that Galen was not right about everything and he taught what he knew at Padua University
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What rare three things that helped Vesalius make his discoveries?
He dissected human bodies, he challenged the authority of Galen and he used skilled artists to illustrate his ideas
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What are two ways in which the Renaissance helped Vesalius make his discoveries?
He was free to experiment and challenge old ideas (because of the nature of the time) and there were many detailed artists that could illustrate his findings
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How did Vesalius improve health and treatments?
He didn't. He simply changed the understanding of the human body, treatments did not change
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What did William Harvey discover?
Circulation of the blood, and that it was not burned in the muscles (as Galen ad suggested)
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Which two famous people did William Harvey doctor?
James I and Charles I of England
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Why was Alexandria so important in Grece?
Dissection was allowed and contained books from all over the world
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Why was the theory of the four humours good?
People exercised regularly so were healthy and people began to trust doctors because they seemed to know what they were talking about
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Why was the theory of the four humours bad?
The idea was passed on so people believed it so the real cause of disease was not discovered very quickly
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What are three ways in which the humours could be balanced?
Blood-letting, purging, vomiting
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What is the Hippocratic Corpus?
A collection of works written by Hippocrates and his followers
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Why was Hippocrates' 'clinical observation' good?
It meant that dictors and physicians could collect information for later use (when treating/ diagnosing) other patients
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Which three things did the Greeks believe were vital to living a healthy life?
Exercise, having a good diet and good hygiene (they put great emphasis on washing)
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Why was the Alexandria a good thing?
It allowed dissectio (more accurate theories with supporting evidence), contained a variety of information from all around the world and doctors from all around the world went there (sharing diverse expertise)
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In Rome, why were Greek doctors unpopular?
Because they were foreign and somewere jealous of their skills
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What happened to the Alexandria when the Romans came along?
They invaded and took over
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Why did the Romans build so much public health stuff?
Because they realised that bad smells, sewage swamps, dirt and uncean drinking water made people ill
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How many medical books did Galen write?
60
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Which key idea did Galen develop?
The Opposites Theory
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What did Galen discover about the brain?
That it contraols speech, not the heart
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What did Galen discover about veins and arteries?
That they both carry blood around the body
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Why did Galen make so many mistakes?
Because he was only allowed to dissect animals
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What was Galen's famous mistake concerning blood in the heart?
That blood passed through holes in the septum to get from one side to another
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Why didn't many Roman people use doctors?
Because they were too expensive, the heads of house were expected to look after the household
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What methods did the Roman heads of house use?
Herbal remedies and common sense methods
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What four big things were changes in Roman societies compared to Greek?
1= more food, better houses and harvests. 2= There were trained doctors in Armies and towns. 3= There was a wider range of herbal medicines. 4= Better public health
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What are three continuities from Greek to Roman medicine?
1= The spread of disease was still not fully understood so still spread. 2= Womenstill treated most helath problems. 3= The poor did not benifit from health schemes that may (or may not have) exhisted
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Why did the Roman public health systems not survive until Medieval times?
Because they were destroyed by war or died over time due to lack of maintenance and repair knowledge
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Why was communication distrupted between doctors during Medieval times?
Because war made travel more dangerous
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What happened to the training of doctors during the beginning of the Middle Ages?
It was abandoned and the works of Galen were either lost or hidden (for safety)
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What happened as the Middle ages progressed concerning the training of doctors?
Universities were set up, merchants and scholars travelled around Europe (gaining and sharing ideas) and doctors were taken to war (gaining experience with surgery)
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In what ways did the Church have great influence during the Middle Ages?
They controlled education (priests and monks were the only ones able to read), the only libraries were in monastries (which banned book sthat they didn't want people to read), and monastries made efforts to provide clean running water and toilets
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What were medieval hospitals like?
Run by churches and monastries who provide 'hospitality' for visitors but turned infectious and genuinely ill people away
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Why did the Church teach Galen's theories as opposed to someone else's during the Middle Ages?
Because he made eference to a 'creator', thus supporting their ideas that stemmed from the Bible and their religion
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What were doctors' oppinions of Galen's work during the Middle Ages?
That they were completely accurate and impossible to prove wrong
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In Western Europe, when medical schools began to spring up, whose works were taught?
Hippocrates' and Galen's, and they were accepted as absolute truth
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What were the general attitudes to the four humours during Medieval times?
That imbalances in them caused illness and that challenging this age-old idea was blasphemous
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What are three superstitious beliefs concerning illness and treatment during the Middle Ages?
That illness was a punishment for sin (caused people to pray when they got ill), that pilgrimages could cure illness and that reciting magical words and consulting the stars could help doctors when treating patients (which was what doctors did)
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When was the Black Death?
1348
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What caused the black death?
Fleas on rats... but eventually simply coughs and sneezes
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What are four symptoms of the black death?
Exhaustion, high temperatures, swellings and difficulty breathing
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What are four things tha were thought to have caused the black death?
Miasma, the wrath of god,imbalanced humours and Jews (who supposedly poisoned water)
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Who was Andreas Vesalius?
A man who became professor of anatomy and surgery at Padua. He was allowed to do disections
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What did Vesalius do?
He corrected several of Galen's ideas-
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What did Vesalius do?
He corrected several of Galen's ideas - that there were not holes in the septum, that the jaw was made up of two bones (not one)
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What was Vesalius' book caled and when was it written?
'On The Fabric of the Human Body', 1543
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Who was Ambriose Pare?
A low-status battlefield surgeon
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What was Pare's idea/ discovery?
He used ligatures instead of a cauterising iron (to burn flesh together)
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What did Pare become after he became famous?
The king's surgeon
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What did Harvey discover?
The circulation of the blood (disproving Galen), the differnce between arteries and veins
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Why did bleeding a patient still continue after Harvey's discovery?
Because there was no alternative
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When were blood groups discovered?
1901
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When was the Great Plague?
1665
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How many people in London did the Great Plague kill?
100,000
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What did The Great Fire of London do to the plague?
Lessened it as it sterelise large parts of London
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When was The Great Fire of London?
1666
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What are two things about public health in renaissance England?
There were many wars which meant that fewer resources were left for the public and as populations increased, more strain was put on water supplies and sewage systems
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How did the development of the Printing Press affect the progress of medicine during the renaissance?
It meant the new ideas could spread more easily and rapidly
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How did the weakining power of the Church affect the progress of medicine during the renaissance?
People became less reliant on religious reasons for disease and turned to more scientific and natural reasoning
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How did the improvement of observational drawing affect the progress of medicine during the renaissance?
It meanttha medical ideas could be more easily understood and shared
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How did the renewed interest in Ancient Learning affect the progress of medicine during the renaissance?
It meant that more people wanted to learn about medicine and challenge old medical ideas
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What dud Edward Jenner do?
He created the first vaccination using cowpox to treat smallpox
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What did icnoculation lead to?
Smallpox and death
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What did Jenner improve to create his vaccinations?
A woman's method using an inoculating loop which he changed when he used injections
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What are four reasons of opposition to Jenner's vaccination?
He had no reasoning for why it worked, incolulators didn't want to lose business, people were afraid of getting cowpox and some Church people felt that it was unnatural
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What dod Florence Nightingae do and what was the affect?
Went out into the Crimean War as a nurse, she reduced the death rate by improving general ward hygiene
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Who was Mary Seacole and what did she do?
She went to nurse in the Crimean War self-funded (as she was refused as a volunteer). Once she got there she built the British Hotel and nursed soldiers
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What is spontaneous generation?
The idea that microbes were caused by illness and disease
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What did Louis Pateur do?
When imployed by a beer person, he created germ theory
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Who was Robert Koch?
A german guy that linked Pasteur's germ theory to disease by growing cultures and using microscopes
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What are three resons for why people stopped reading Galen during the Industrial Revolution?
He was being disproved using new theories and minds, the fou r humours were no longer valid (people initially blamed miasma for illness) and people had mocroscopes and were allowed to dissect humans (so it was more difficult to believe what Galen had
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What did Pasteur's team do upon hearing about Koch's findings?
They began investigating cholera where Chamberlain made a mistake, allowing the team to chance upon a cholera vaccination
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When did Pasteur's germ theory become widly accepted?
1857
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What are two bad things about the living conditions of people during the Industrial era?
They lived very closeto ech other meaning that disease and illnes could spread easily and rapidly. Also, their town councils could not cope with the massive numbers of people in terms of water and sewage disposal
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What were the two sides of governmental intervention concerning public health in Industrial Britain?
The idea that public health was THEIR responsibility and the idea that the government should take a more laissez-fair approach
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What did Edwin Chadwick do about public health?
He was asked by th egovernment to investigate public health, The he proposed that local councils did more to look after their poor people because it would benifit them and help them save money in the long-run
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What three things did Chadwick want communities to do (about public health)?
Organise sewage systems, provide clean water supplies and appoint a medical officer of health
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What did the 1848 do?
Told (but didn't force) towns to appoint medical officers, gave money to build sewage and stuff..., suggested that taxpayers also contribute
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What actually happened afte rthe 1848 public health act was passed?
Few authorities acted upon it
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What did John Snow?
Proved a link between water and cholera and made a pump be removed
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When was the great stink and what happened?
It was in 1858 where hot weather combined with the accumulation of human waste caused a nasty smell
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What was the effect of the great stink?
The parliament allowed Balzalgette to build a seweage system for London
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When was the second refom act and what was it?
1867. Gave working class men the right to vote
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When was the second public health act and what did it say?
1875. Forced towns to take action
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

What is Asclepius the god of?

Back

Health and medicine

Card 3

Front

What are the four humours in order of season (spring to winter)?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What were the water water pipes (in the Roman Empire) made out of?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Which did not TRANSPORT water in Roman Britain? Aqueducts, reservoirs, water pipes or sewers

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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