chemistry starting at the start

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what are the different conversions of states
solid to liquid MELTING liquid to gas BOILING gas to liquid CONDENSATION liquid to solid FREEZING
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what is a compound
different elements join together they make a compound and it is represented by formulae that show how many atoms of each element's are in the compound
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what is a mixture
a mixture is made from molecules of elements and compounds that are simply mixed together, WITHOUT chemical bonds
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describe an experiment to show simple distillation
pic of heating water and ethanol solution
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what is the sequence of events for simple distillation
heating to evaporating to cooling to condensing
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describe an experiment to show fractional distillation
pic of crude oil
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describe an experiment to investigate filtration
pic of filtration
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describe an experiment to investigate crystalisation
pic of crystalisation
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describe an experiment to investigate paper chromatography
pic of paper chromatography
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what is RF
RF=distance moved by the compound divided by distance moved by the solvent
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how can data from chromatograms be used to identify the composition of a mixture
different components will move at different rates
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what is an isotope
two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei and differ in relative atomic mass
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how do you calculate the relative atomic mass
1write the formula of the compound2write the numbers of each atom in the formula3insert the relative atomic mass for each type of atom4calculate the total mass for each element5 add up the total mass for the compound
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what is the equation regarding moles, mass, rfm
moles=mass/relative formula mass
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how would you calculate relative formula masses from relative atomic masses
1write the formula of the compound2 write the numbers of each atom in the formula3insert the relative atomic mass for each element4calculate the total mass for each element5add up the total mass for the compound
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how do you deduce the number of outer electrons in a main group element from its position in the periodic table
the number of occupied shells(row in the table) and the number of electrons in the outer shell is the same as the group number(column in the table
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how do you find the protons, electrons, neutrons of an atom by looking at the periodic table
pic of Cl atom
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what is the electron configuration of an atom
2:8:8:2
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never forget to put state symbols behind
S=solid L=liquid G=gas aq=aqueous solution
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how would you find the empirical formula of a metal oxide
the empirical formula of magnesium oxide can be calculated using the following experiment, which finds the mass of the magnesium and oxygen atoms in a sample of the compound
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how do you make a salt
acid+base=salt+water
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how does litmus paper react with acid and alkali
acid=red alkali=blue
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how does phenolphthalein react with acid and alkali
acid=colourless alkali=pink
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how does methyl orange react with acid and alkali
acid=pink alkali=yellow
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how would you work out the empirical formulae from experimental data
table of bitesize
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how would you calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
1-6 on pages
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describe the formation of ions by the gain or loss of electrons
ions are electrically charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. METALS form POSITIVE ions and NON-METALS form NEGATIVE IONS
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what is OILRIG
oxidations is loss and reduction is gain (of electrons)
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what are the charges of these common ions sodium, chloride, oxide and aluminium ions
sodiums=Na+ ALUMINIUM=Al3+ and oxide=O2- and chloride=Cl-
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how do you deduce the charge of an ion by looking at it's electronic configuration
group 1=+ group 2=2+group3=+3 group5-3 group6=-2 group7=0
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practice dot and cross diagrams do not forget
do not forget
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what is ionic bonding
ionic bonding is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
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describe ionic compounds
ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions
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describe a covalent
pic of covalent bond
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what is a covalent bond
the bond is created by two atoms sharing a pair of electrons
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is there a strong attraction between a covalent bond
there is a strong attraction between the bonding pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved in the blood
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draw dot and cross diagrams for the following
hydrogen, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, water, methane, ammonia, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, ethane, ethene
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what properties does simple molecular structures
solids, liquids and gases all have low melting points as long as they have simple molecular structures
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why do substances with simple molecular structures have low melting and boiling points
they have relatively weak forces between the molecules
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why is there high melting and boiling points of substances with giant covalent structures
there is the breaking of many strong covalent bonds
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how is a metal described
a metal can be described as a giant structure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons
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explain the malleability of a metal
the free electrons allow metal atoms to slide over each other, so therefore metals are malleable and ductile
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what is an electric current
the flow of electrons or ions
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why do covalent compounds not conduct electricity
they have no free electrons an no ions so they don't conduct electricity
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why do ionic compounds conduct electricity when in solution or molten
ionic compounds can only conduct electricity if their ions are free to move
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describe an experiment to distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes
by carrying out electrolysis +pic of electrolysis
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what is electrolysis
electrolysis is the decomposition of a liquid using electricity. when ionic compounds are molten or dissolved in water the ions are free to move
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describe an experiment to investigate electrolysis
lead|| bromide
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how do you write ionic half equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis
1write the formulae of the reactant and product2adjust the number of ions if needed3count the number of charges. add enough electrons so that both sides have the same total number of charges
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what is meant by the term homologous series
A homologous series is series of compounds that have similar properties and the same general formula
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what is a hydrocarbon
a hydrocarbon is a compound consisting of only hydrogen and carbon
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what is meant by the term saturated
a single bond like a alkane
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what is meant by the term unsaturated
a double bond like an alkene
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what is the general formula for alakanes
CnH2n+2
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what are groups 1,7,0
1=alkali metals7=halogens0=noble gases
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what is a period
horizontal rows on the periodic table
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where are metals positioned on the periodic table
elements to the left of the metaloid line are metals and a thin line are metalloid next to the line
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where are non metals positioned on the periodic table
to the right of the metaloid line
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why do elements in the same group of the periodic table have similar chemical properties
they have their atoms have the same number of electrons
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why are noble gases are a family of inert gases and explain their lack of reactivity in terms of their electronic configurations
noble gases are He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn and noble gases have outermost of their atoms are full
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describe the reactions of these elements(lithium sodium and potassium)with water
they will react vigorously metal+water=sodium hydroxide+hydrogen
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describe the relative reactivites of the elements in group 1
they react vigorously with cold water and metal hydroxide is produced
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what is the colours and physical states of the elements at room temperature
astatine is a solid IODINE is a solid BROMINE is a liquid CHLORINE is a gas and FLUORINE is a gas
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make predictions about the properties of halogens in group 7
at the top of group 7 fluorine is the most reactive and astatine is the least
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what is the difference between hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid
hydrogen chloride is a gas and hydrochloric acid is formed with water
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explain why hyrdogen chloride is acidic in water
when hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in a solvent called methylbenzene, the molecules do not split up
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describe the relative reactivities of the elements in group 7
they have 7 electrons in the outer shell
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describe an experiment to investigate that a more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of one of its salts
sodium bromide is a salt of bromine that will dissolve water chlorine will displace bromine from sodium bromide solution. The most reactive halogen displaces all the other halogen from solution of their salts while theleast reactivehalogenisdisplaced
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what are these reactions
redox reactions
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what are the gases present in air and what is their percentages
78% nitrogen 21% oxygen 1% argon 0.04 carbon dioxide
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describe the laboratory preparation of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide using manganese(IV) oxide as a catalyst
pic of
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describe the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide from calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid
pic
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describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates such as copper 11 carbonate
metal carbonates such as calcium carbonate break down when heated strongly.
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what are the equations for the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate
calcium carbonate→with heat to calcium oxide+carbon dioxide CaCO3 →with heat to CaO+CO2
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what are the equations for the thermal decomposition of copper carbonate
copper carbonate→with heat to copper oxide+carbon dioxide CuCO3→with heat goes to CuO+CO2
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what are the properties of carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is used to give fizzy drinks bubbles. carbon dioxide is also denser than air so it sinks
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explain the use of carbon dioxide in carbonating drinks and in fire extinguishers, in term of its solubility and density
carbon dioxide gives the drinks fizz and in a fire extinguisher it will smother the fire to starve it from oxygen
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describe the reactions of dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids with magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron
dilute acids react with relatively reactive metals such as magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron. The products of the reaction are a salt plus hydrogen gas
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what is a good way to remember this
M+A→S+H metal+acid → salt +hydrogen gas
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describe the combustion of hydrogen
the flame is almost colourless.Mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen can be explosive so it must be handled with caution
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describe the use of anhydrous copper(ii) sulfate in the chemical test for water
this is a test for water and the WHITE solid turns BLUE in the presence of water
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describe a physical test to show wether water is pure
boil the liquid and measure its boiling point and if it is boiling point will be 100'C
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how are metals arranged
in a reactivity series from lowest to highest GOLD, SILVER, COPPER,IRON,ZINC, ALUMINIUM, MAGNESIUM, CALCIUM, LITHIUM, SODIUM,POTASSIUM
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what does oxidation do and what does reduction do
OIL RIG Oxidation Is Loss and Reduction Is GAIN
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what is meant by the term redox
redox involves both reduction and oxidation examples include rusting
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what is meant by the term oxidising agent
a substance that tends to bring about oxidation by being reduced and gaining electrons
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what is meant by the term reducing agent
a substance that tends to bring about reduction by being oxidized and losing electrons
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how can rusting be prevented
galvanising which iron and steel is coated in a layer of zinc which stops oxygen and water reaching the metal underneath and this is sacrificial protection
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what are the conditions in which iron rusts
it rusts with the presence of oxygen and water
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what are the flame test colour for LI+ Na+ K+ Ca2+
Li =red Na=orange K=lilac Ca=yellow-red
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how would you test for NH4+
use sodium hydroxide and identifying the ammonia
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describe tests for Cu2+,Fe2+,Fe3+
using sodium hydroxide(NaOH) Cu+NaOH=BLUE precipitate Fe2+NaOH=GREEN precipitate Fe3+NaOH=BROWN precipitate
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describe how you can identify sodium salts with a flame test
clean flame test stick with HCL and heat to burn off residue/flame test stick dipped sodium carbonate and heated/orange flame indicates it is sodium
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what are cations
positive
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what are anions
negative
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describe a test for Cl-, Br-,I-
use dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution
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what is the test for SO4/2-
use dilute hydrochloric acid and barium chloride solution
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what is the test for CO3/2-
use dilute hydrochloric acid and identify the carbon dioxide is evolved
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what is the test for hydrogen gas
squeky pop test
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what is the test for oxygen gas
relighting a glowing splint
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what is the test for carbon dioxide
bubble through limewater until it goes cloudy
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what is the test for ammonia gas
Ammonia forms a white smoke of ammonium chloride when hydrogen chloride gas, from concentrated hydrochloric acid. it creates a pungent choking smell
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what is the test for chlorine gas
chlorine makes damp starch iodide paper turn blue-black
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name 5 straight chain isomers (alkanes)from smallest to highest
CH4 methane C2H6 ethane C3H8 propane C4H10 Butane C5H12 pentane
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how do you test for alkenes
bromine water is an orange solution of bromine. it becomes colourless when shaken with an alkene. Alkenes can decolourise bromine water
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describe litmus paper
turns alkali blue and acidic red
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describe phenolphthalein indicator
turns colourless in acid and pink in alkaline
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describe methyl orange indicator
turns red in acid and yellow in alkaline
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describe acids and alkalis
sources of hydrogen ions(H+) and alkalis are sources of hydroxide ions (OH-)
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predict the products of reactions between dilute hydrochloric acid
hydrogen causes bubbling during the reaction. it can be detected using a lighted spline which causes the gas to burn with a squeaky pop test
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what are the general rules for predicting the solubility of salts in water
1all common sodium,potassium and ammonium salts are soluble2all nitrates are soluble3common chloridses are soluble except barium and calcium5common carbonates are insoluble, except those of sodium,potassium and ammonium
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describe an experiment to prepare soluble salts from acids
pic
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describe experiments to prepare insoluble salts using precipitation reactions
silver nitrate and sodium chloride are added together, the product, silver chloride is made, this salt is insoluable and so will form a white precipitate in the solution
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describe experiments to carry out acid-alkali titrations
titrations are used to find out the volume of acid required to react exactly with a given volume of an alkali using a pipette 25cm3 of an alkali solution into a conical flaskand methyl orange is used and when it goes colourless it is neutral
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describe an exothermic energy
exothermic is where heat energy is given out
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describe endothermic energy
endothermic is energy taken in
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describe an experiment to work out combustion
a spirit burner with a fuel below a beaker half full of water with a thermometer in it
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describe an experiment to work out displacement dissolving and neutralisation reactions
in a polystyrene cup put copper 2 sulfate +magnesium for example and you will get magnesium sulfate +copper
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describe an exothermic reaction graph
pic
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describe an endothermic reaction graph
pic
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describe an experiment to investigate the effects of changes in surface are of a solid
1put a set mass of magnesium in hydrochloric acid 2 time the reaction 3 change the from of magnesium keeping the mass the same(powder,wire,strips) 4 the more surface area(smaller the pieces) the faster the reaction
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describe an experiment to investigate the effects of changes in concentration of solutions
1put a set mass of marble chips into dilute HCL 2 time the reaction 3 change the ratio of water to hydrochloric acid 4 the more concentrated the HCL(the lower the ratio of water) the faster the reaction
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describe an experiment to investigate the effects of changes in temperature
1put a set mass of magnesium powder into a set mass of HCL 2 time the reaction 3 carry out this reaction at different temperatures 4 the higher the temperature the faster the rate of reaction
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describe an experiment to investigate the effects of changes in the use of a catalyst
hydrogen peroxide will not decompose 1 put manganese dioxide it will decompose into water and oxygen 2 the manganese dioxide will be unaltered by the reaction 3 the more of the catalyst the faster the reaction(lowers the activation energy)
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describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction
it means that more particles are able to succesfully collide per second
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describe the effects of changes of concentration of solutions on the rate of reaction
increases the number of particles of reactant in a volume and the reacting particles will collide more often and therefore there will be more successful collisions per second
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describe the effects of changes in temperature on the rate of reaction
the particles will have more kinetic energy so more successful collisions take place
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describe the effects of changes on the rate of reaction by using a catalyst
it will increase the rate of reaction because it slows down the reaction giving a lower activation energy so more collisions will take place and therefore more successful collisions per second
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what is activation energy
the minimum quantity of energy required for a reaction to take place
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what happens in terms of particle collision theory when the rate of reaction is increased
there are more successful collisions
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what is a reversible equation sign
⇌
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describe a reversible reaction such as the dehydration of hydrated copper sulfate
if you add water to copper sulphate you can make hydrated copper sulphate and it is reversed if the water is removed from hydrated copper sulphate you can make copper sulphate
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describe the concept of dynamic equilibrium
the reactants and products are constantly moving between each other
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explain how the methods of extraction of the metals in this section are related to their positions in the reactivity series
the oxides of very reactive metals, such as aluminium form stable oxides and other compounds, alot of energy is required to extract the metal. Oxides of lesser reactive metals e.g. iron form less stable oxides. little energy isneeded to extract metal
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describe and explain the extraction of aluminium from purified aluminum by electrolysis
1 the use of molten cryolite as a solvent and to decrease the required operating temperature 2 the need to replace the positive electrodes 3 the cost of the electricity as a major factor
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what are the half equations for the reactions at the electrodes in aluminium extraction
this is for the reaction at the negative electrode Al3+ + 3e− → Al the reaction at the positive electrode 2O2− → O2 + 4e−
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describe and explain the main reactions involved in the extraction of iron from iron ore(haematite), using coke, limestone, and air in a blast furnace
Iron is displace from its by carbon(COKE) 2Fe2O3+3c>4Fe+3CO2 also displaced by Carbon monoxide Fe2O3+3CO>2Fe+3CO2
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explain the uses of aluminium and iron and also explain their properties
aluminium is used for cars shells as it is light and iron is can become an alloy which is steel and and is harder stronger and less likely to rust
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what is crude oil made of
a mixture of hydrocarbons
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describe the industrial distillation
pic of crude oil
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how is carbon monoxide created from combustion of fuels and how is it poisonous
carbon monoxide is created from incomplete combustion and is poisonous as it reduces the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen
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what do car engines do(with air)
when the temperature is high enough nitrogen and oxygen from air react forming nitrogen oxides
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what does fractional distillation of crude oil produce and which
fractional distillation of crude oil produces more long chain hydrocarbons that are used and fewer shorter hydrocarbons that have to be cracked
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how are long chain alkanes converted to alkenes and shorter chain alkanes
catalytic cracking using silica or alumina as the catalyst and a temperature in the range of 600-700C
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how do you create a polymer
you join small molecules together into a polymer called molymers
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what is a repeat unit of addition polymers
pic
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how do you find the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer
pictures
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describe some uses for for polymers
polyethene=plastic carrier bags polypropene=crates, ropes polychlroethene=piping
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what is an attribute of addition polymers
hard to dispose of as their inetness means that they do not easily biodegrade
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what is used in the manufacture of ammonia
nitrogen from air, hydrogen from natural gas or the cracking of hydrocarbons
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describe the haber process
temperature 450C pressure of 200 atmoshpheres and an iron catalyst
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why is the environment used for the haber process
it is cheap in comparison to others
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what does cooling the mixture do
it liquefies the ammonia produced and allows unused hydrogen and nitrogen to be recirculated then is pumped off as a liquid
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what are uses for ammonia
nitric acid and fertilisers
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Card 2

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what is a compound

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different elements join together they make a compound and it is represented by formulae that show how many atoms of each element's are in the compound

Card 3

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what is a mixture

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Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

describe an experiment to show simple distillation

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Card 5

Front

what is the sequence of events for simple distillation

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