Bilingual: Advantage and Disadvantage

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What is the Bilingual disadvantage?
Bilinguals control a smaller vocabulary in each language than mono-linguals (Oller and Eilers, 2002) - when you are bilingual, you cannot speak both languages as much as a monolingual - less practice
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This finding is especially important for what?
descriptions of children’s development because vocabulary size is a central measure of children’s progress in both the oral and literate forms of language development
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What did Bilinguals report more?
Tip of the tongue states that monolinguals (Gollan and Silverberg, 2001)
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What are tip of the tongue phonomena?
there is an issue with finding the particular word, possibly due to interference which would be worse for bilinguals because they have 2 words for each thing
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What is a lower verbal fluency?
e.g. name as many fruits beginning with an ‘a’ • Picture naming: monolinguals are faster at naming pictures than the bilinguals (Gollan et al., 2005)
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What else are they reported to have?
poorer verbal word identification (Rogers et al., 2006), and experience more interference in lexical decision tasks (Ransdell & Fischler, 1987
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What is the bilingual deficit in lexical access and?
retrieval persist with aging (Gollan et al., 2007)
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What is the disadvantage limited to?
Specific language tasks
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In all these studies, there is evidence that part of the problem is the interference that must be resolved from?
the other language
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Manipulating the relation between the words in the two languages for example?
by controlling the cognate value or adjusting word frequency, systematically changes bilingual performance (Costa, 2005), suggesting that there is a central role for the relation between the words in these effects
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Who came up with the Weaker links hypothesis (2008)?
Gollan et al (2008)
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What is the weaker link hypothesis?
Bilinguals are disadvantaged relative to monolinguals on speaking tasks because they divide frequency of use between two languages
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What do monolinguals do?
Perform better because the links between words are weaker than for monolinguals
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Where does this explanation follows from?
Connectionist models in which the pathways that underlie the associative networks between words and concepts are distributed across two languages.
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What does it make the associations?
with each language less practice and therefore less fluid
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What hypothesis is this similar to?
Temporal Delay Hypothesis (Dikjstra and Van Heuvan, 2002)
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How?
Takes longer for the representations to become activated in the second language because they are not as strong
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Other views attribute the reduction in lexical access to?
The conflict that is created by the competition from the corresponding item in the non target language (Green, 1998)
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This competition requires what?
A mechanism for controlling attention to the target language, possibly by inhibiting the interfering option
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What does bilingual production require?
constant involvement of the executive control system to manage attention to the target language
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What is possible?
This experience enhances that system making it more robust for other functions
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Advantages of bilingualism Bialystok (2008)
bilingual production requires the constant involvement of executive control to manage attention to the target language, then it is possible that this experience enhances that system by making it more robust for other functions
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Bialystok (1988) finding
• Bilingual children perform better than monolingual children on metalinguistic tasks that require controlled attention and inhibition, but not on tasks that involve grammar knowledge
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Research with children has shown that bilingual children develop the ability to solve problems that?
contain conflicting or misleading cues at an earlier age than monolinguals e.g. better performance on the dimensional change card sort task (Zelazo et al., 1996)
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What is the reason behind advantage in situations of conflict and distraction?
bilinguals' enhanced executive functioning, inhibitory skills and/or monitoring abilities
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Carlson and Meltzoff (2008)
administered 9 executive function tasks to children to help isolate the specific aspects of these executive control tasks that are more advanced for bilingual kindergarten children.
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First result
the nine tasks clustered into two factors in a factor analysis, representing conflict tasks and delay tasks
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Second Result
bilingual children performed better than monolingual children on conflict tasks, but there were no differences on delay tasks
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It was not simply the case that the bilingual children were simply faster, smartyer or more developmentally advanced, instead what?
They performed better than the other two groups on precisely the tasks that presented conflict for competing options that needed to be resolved from a correct response.
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What does this parallel?
the situation in which two competing language systems create a conflict for selection in bilingual speech production
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What is the evidence against bilingual executive advantage?
Anton et al. (2014): suggested the advantage may be due to uncontrolled factors or incorrectly matched samples. Bilingual and monolingual children completed the attentional network task. Showed no bilingual advantage
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However studying with children may be?
problematic because their executive functioning develops later in life
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Paap and Greenberg (2013)
found not evidence in psychology students – anti-saccade, Simon Says, flanker and colour-shape switching tasks, no effect of bilinguals
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Dunabetia et al (2014)
no difference in verbal Stroop task and non-verbal number-size congruency task in monolinguals and bilinguals (numbers don’t match with the size, have to indicate whether the number is large or small) No bilingual executive control advantage
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Publication bias: De Bruin et al (2014)
analysis of conference abstracts revealed that 63% of the presentations that revealed an advantage were published, whereas only 36% of the presentations that did not find an advantage were published
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What does language not inherently seem to do?
rest on memory, but working memory is normally considered to be part of executive function. Therefore, an enhancement in executive control in general may have the consequences of also boosting the working memory system which is part of it
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There is complex pattern regarding the effect of bilingualism on memory performance?
Memory tasks based primarily on verbal recall are performed more poorly by bilinguals but memory tasks based primarily on executive control are performed better by bilinguals (Bialystok, 2008)
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Verbal (Ferdanades et al, 2007)
bilinguals recalled fewer words at both ages (old and young)
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If memory is equivalent but bilinguals are disadvantaged by the verbal task then what would be expected?
they would perform more poorly than monolinguals
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Need a non-verbal test of working memory such as?
Corsi blocks test (Milner, 1971), touch sequence of blocks and ppt has to reproduce pattern either forwards or backwards. Young bilinguals performed the best (Bialystok et al., 2008)
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Following the idea that cognitive reserve builds up from what?
extended experience with stimulating activities and that this cognitive reserve protects against the onset of dementia (Stern, 2002)
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Bialystok et al (2007)
investigated the possibility that bilingualism is one such experience that contributes to cognitive reserve
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They compared the age of onset of symptoms of dementia for 184 people who been diagnosed with dimentia?
Half of these individuals were bilingual. There was no difference in the duration of their symptoms or their cognitive function as indicated by the Mini Mental State Exam (Folstein et al., 1975
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However, the bilinguals showed signs of dementia whenn?
four years later than the monolinguals – with a mean age of 71.4 for monolinguals and 75.5 for bilinguals
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Why was this difference significant?
providing preliminary evidence for the generalized power of bilingualism to sustain cognitive functioning even with the challenges of impending disease
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Using two languages can lead to what?
Organisation of the mental lexicon (Store of knowledge of words)
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What is the storage argument for both languages?
Independent lexicons or an integrated lexicon
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What is the argument for lexicon language specific or not?
If we are reading in our second language, does access to our first language occur or not? If there is non specific access then there are interactions and are there ways that we can stop these interactions?
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What is the first possible on the organised language system?
 Extreme case where the languages are completely separate and access is language selective and specific, no interactions between languages
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2nd possibility of organised language system?
 Extreme case languages are stored in one system, additional information stored in the mental lexicon to know whether a word is English and Dutch, access is non-selective, words of both languages could be activated, any interactions play an early rl
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What is the 3rd possibility of language systems?
 Systems are completely separate but access is non-selective although the lexicons are not interacting, the interactions occur later through the non-selective access
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What is the final possibility of the language system?
 Languages are stored in one system (one lexicon) but access is selective
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What are orthographic neighbours?
A word that differs in only one letter from a target word, respecting length and letter position (Coltheart et al, 1977)
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Interlingual homographs
identical spelling but different meanings
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Interlingual homophones
similar/identical pronunciation (same phonology) but different meanings and cognates: similar meaning and pronunciation (and spelling) – found in languages which use the same script
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Van Heuvan, Dijkstra and Grainger (1998) Task
Manipulated the number of neighbours (neighbourhood density) within and between languages – words which have both Dutch and English neighbours or only one language
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Example
English word: VERB – both Dutch and English neighbours. English neighbours: HERB,VERY. Dutch neighbours: VERF [paint],VERS [fresh]
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What is the idea?
neighbours become activated very quickly when they see the target word
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Dutch-English bilinguals pps how good were they?
L1 Dutch, high proficiency in L2
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Tasks eg:
English Lexical Decision Generalized Lexical Decision (is it a word irrespective of language) and Progressive Demasking (PDM)  A mask (e.g. checkerboard pattern) is alternated with the target word. Vary how long the word is visible. Press a button
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Findings for PDM experiment (presented a block of words in L1 and then a block in L2
for Dutch targets, there is an effect of Dutch neighbours AND English neighbours and vice versa
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Mixed PDM experiment results (Present the two languages one after another
 Similar pattern. If it was selective we wouldn’t expect to find effects of English on Dutch and Dutch on English but they did
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What is the summary neighbourhood results?
• Target word recognition is affected by neighbours from the target and non-target language. Thus, words of both languages are activated in parallel
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What model is assumed?
Non selective access to an integrated lexicon accounts for results
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Cop et al (2015)
participants read a novel while their eye movements were recorded. Bilinguals read half the novel in English and the other half in Dutch
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results
L2 reading slower than L1 (unbalanced bilinguals). 20% slower and 21% more fixations. No clear difference between the L1 of bilinguals and monolinguals
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Thus no support for what hypothesis?
the weaker links hypothesis (Gollan et al., 2011) – the idea that bilinguals are worse at each language than a monolingual because they use each one less than a monolingual
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Bilingual interactive activation model
• Features: integrated lexicon, parallel access, top-down inhibition, language nodes – tags that indicate what language the word is from
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What is the word level?
in addition to the target word, there are lots of other words that are activated. Because of the non-selective system, words that are orthographic neighbours in both languages are activated
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Language node?
presented with an English word, English is activated the most, Dutch is partly activated because it has lots of orthographic neighbours
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What do unbalanced bilinguals have?
lower resting-level activations for L2 words (different word frequency range) and ssymmetric top-down inhibition – might have some ability to have a small amount of control on the languages and it might have a subtle effect
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BIA + model (Dijkstra and Van Heuvan, 2002)
• BIA model was only for orthographic lexicon so developed the BIA+ to extend it
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Word identification system
interacting orthographic, phonological, and semantic representations. Integrated lexicon of two languages. Language node: so you can tell that a word is a particular language
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What is the first system?
interacting orthographic, phonological, and semantic representations. Integrated lexicon of two languages. Language node: so you can tell that a word is a particular language
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2nd system
Task/Decision system
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What does this system do?
uses task schemas to set up specific processing steps for the task at hand. Receives continuous input from the identification system
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Decision criteria determine what?
When a response is made based on relevant codes in the identification system.
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This finding is especially important for what?

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descriptions of children’s development because vocabulary size is a central measure of children’s progress in both the oral and literate forms of language development

Card 3

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What did Bilinguals report more?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

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What are tip of the tongue phonomena?

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What is a lower verbal fluency?

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