Development of Language and Literacy

Strand and Hessle (2018)

Proficiency of English in EAL children improved with age.

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Peal and Lambert (1962)

Bilinguals more advanced in school, increased mental flexibility.

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Werker and Byers-Henlein (2008)

1. Sensitivity to phoneme contrasts for both languages remain. 2. Bilinguals take longer to attend to stimuli from native language, monolinguals take longer for unfamiliar language.

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Ramirez et al. (2017)

English and English-Spanish bilinguals exposed to English or Spanish type sounds. No difference in reaction to English sound, but only bilinguals sensitive to Spanish sound.Frontal activation involved in EF.

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Ollers and Eilers (2002)

Vocab smaller in each language but larger overall.

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Bialystock and Feng (2011)

971 aged 5-9, monolinguals had higher vocab scores.

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Calvo and Bialystock (2014)

Working and middle class bilingual 6yr olds worse than monolinguals on vocab.

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Bialystock (2007)

The gap in number of words between bilinguals and monolinguals may persist.

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Bialystock (2009)

Bilinguals show slow picture naming, poor verbal fluency, interference in lexical decision making and poor word identification.

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Bialystock, Craik and Luk (2008)

Younger and older bilinguals scored lower than monolinguals on vocab and fluency tests.

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Kaushanskaya and Marian (2009)

Bilinguals better at learning novel words that were phonologically unfamiliar. Not effected by seeing non-words that match English orthography.

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Gollan et al. (2008)

Weaker Link Hypothesis: less practice using each language, link between semantics and phonology are not as strong.

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Davidson and Tell (2005)

3 and 6 year old bilinguals use whole object constraint, older bilinguals resort to mutual exclusivity bias.

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Kaushanskaya, Gross and Buac (2014)

Bilinguals better at learning a novel word when shown a familiar referent compared to monolinguals. No difference for unfamiliar referent.

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Johnson and Newport (1989)

46 Chinese/Korean p's moved to US aged 3-39. The more exposure they had to English, the better they performed on a grammar test.

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Fiege, Yeni-Komshia and Lui (1999)

240 Korean speakers, US immigrants living in US for at least 8 years. Later moved to US, rater as having a stronger foreign accent.

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Hakuta, Bialystock and Wiley (2003)

US census 1990, self report measure, rated own English as poorer the later they moved.

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Miyake et al. (2000)

Components of EF: inhibition, shifting and updating in WM.

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Cromdal (1999)

Bilinguals do better at metalinguistic task requiring EF. Better at accepting sentence that is semantically anomalous but grammatically correct.

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Bialystock and Martin (2004)

Dimensional change cart sorting task. Typical 5year olds stick with 1st criterion to sort, bilinguals find it easier to switch criteria.

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Carlson and Meltzoff (2008)

Bilinguals better at conflict task, no different on delay task testing supression of motor response.

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Feng, Diamond and Bialystock (2007)

Frog jump matrix, bilinguals only have advantage when extra rule is added.

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Paap and Greenberg (2013)

No evidence of bilingual advantage on Simon, Flanker or switching tasks.

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Paap, Johnson and Sawl (2014)

Studies showing bilingual advantage have small sample size, haven't controlled demographics. 80% fail to find advantage and few have been replicated.

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DeBruin et al. (2014)

Publication bias, more supporting articles have been published than challenging ones.

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Bialystock, Craik and Freedman (2007)

Patients referred to memory clinic for dementia. Onset for monolinguals=71.4yrs, bilinguals=75.5yrs. Bilinguals had fewer years of education.

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Valenzuela and Sachdev (2006)

Mentally stimulating leisure activities most robust brain-reserve measure.

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Bialystock and Craik (2010)

Bilinguals have smaller vocab and slower lexical access but advantages in EF and deferred onset of dementia.

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Paap and Greenberg (2013)

3 studies showed similar pattern of executive processing with one task showing a bilingual disadvantage.

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Pringle Morgan (1986)

First article on Dyslexia, 14 year old boy who couldn't read but highly intelligent. Deficit storing visual impressions of words.

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James Hinshelwood (1900)

Congenital word blindness

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Samuel Orton (1925)

Dyslexia as perceptual disorder, 'strephosymbolia' - twisted symbols.

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Stein et al.

RDK to measure magno (motion) and parvo (detail) function. Dyslexics showed poor motion detection but intact parvo function.

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Stein (2001)

Magnocellular deficit not found in all Dyslexics, correlates with irregular word reading but not decoding.

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Bouldoukian, Wilkins and Evans (2002)

Show benefits of colour overlays.

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Lavino, Fletcher, Brietmeyer and Foorman (1999)

No benefit of colour overlays.

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Valdois

p's report identities of as many letter as they can

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Bosse et al. (2004)

Valdois measure is a good predictor of reading scores in French and English developmental Dyslexics.

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Ziegler et al. (2010)

Added symbols to Valdois measure, Dyslexics showed deficits in letters but not symbols.

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Franceschini et al. (2013)

Action video games improved attention.

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Gori et al. (2016)

Quicker nonsense word reading following action video games.

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Nicholson, Fawcett and Dean (2011)

Automatisation/cerebellar deficit

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Nicholson and Fawcett (1990)

Dyslexics have motor deficits.

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Rochelle and Talcott (2006)

Motor deficit found in Dyslexics with ADHD, not a learning difficulty problem.

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Raynolds, Nicholson and Hambly (2003)

18 children who had DORE intervention showed gains but not in reading or spelling.

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Snowling and Melby-Lervag (2016)

45% prevalence, affected FR show sever language difficulties, unaffected FA still show poor language skills.

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Hulme et al. (2015)

Language at 3.5 years predicts grapheme-phoneme knowledge and PA.

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Hulme et al. (2012)

PA and LSK intervention mediated gains in reading in children with poor language skills.

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Hatcher, Hulme and Ellis (1994)

Reading with phonology showed more improvements in 7 year old poor readers.

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Serniclaes et al (2004)

Dyslexics are extra sensitive to within category differences.

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Noodenbros and Serniclaes (2015)

Dyslexics have shallower identification of letters.

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Messaoud-Galusi, Hazan and Rosen (2011)

Performance on speech perception didn't correlate with phonology or decoding.

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Tallal

Rapid auditory temporal processing deficit, Dyslexics need a longer interval between tones.

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Halliday and Bishop (2006)

Frequency detection deficit, Dyslexics less sensitive to differences in tone frequency.

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Huss et al. (2011)

Onset rise time, Dyslexics less sensitive to amplitude changes.

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Guttorm et al (2005)

Different right hemisphere activation in Dyslexics.

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Law et al. (2017)

Dyslexics show sensitivity to sharp changes in amplitude.

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Pennington et al. (2017)

Twin study, not all with Dyalexia have phonological deficit, some just below cutoff.

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Thompson et al.

3.5yrs: LSK and FR predictors. 4.5yrs: FR, PA, LSK and RAN predictors.

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Sakisida et al. (2016)

282 French 8-13yrs, phonological deficit most common, visual deficit least common.

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Olumide et al. (2013)

similar activity in V5/MT during vision motor processing task.

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Paulesu et al. (2001)

Reduced activation in left inferior temporal region.

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Silani et al. (2001)

Difference in grey and white matter in left inferior temporal cortex.

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Hoeft et al (2010)

Right prefrontal activation for word rhyme task, right superior longitudinal fasciculus white matter predicted by reading growth.

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Melby-Lurvag et al. (2012)

Poor PA in Dyslexia, smaller deficits in rime awareness and verbal STM

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Ehri (1995)

Stages of reading: logographic, alphabetic then orthographic.

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Grough and Tunmer (1986)

Reading comprehension involves decoding and language comprehension.

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Scarborough (2001)

Reading rope, language comprehension and word recognition.

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Caravolas et al. (2013)

1. Early reading development slower in English, longer to learn inconsistent mappings, requires PA and speed of accessing verbal info. 2. English, Spanish and Czech tested 6 times in 3 years, Spanish and Czech better readers.

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Rose (2005)

Phonic work should be prime approach to learning to decode and encode.

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Share (1995)

Children learn written form of word by decoding.

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Share (1999)

8 year old Hebrew speaking children learnt novel words quickly by reading them in context.

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Cunningham et al. (2002)

Replicated Share in English, ability to decode novel word correlated with its written form.

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Ouellette (2010)

Spelling practice improves orthographic learning, drawing attention to letter and sound.

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Share (1995)

Context used to determine the correct pronunciation.

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Nation and Cocksey (2009)

Knowing the spoken form of the word is the best predictor of reading

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Ricketts et al. (2016)

Knowing the meaning of a word is the best predictor of reading.

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Nash et al.

Knowing both spoken form and meaning predictors of reading.

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Mackay (2008)

Adults better at reading aloud novel irregular words following phonological and semantic pre-training.

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Wang et a. (2011)

Children better reading aloud irregular words following phonological and semantic pre-training.

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Perfetti (2008)

Lexical legacy hypothesis, encountering in different environments makes high quality representation of words freeing up resources for comprehension.

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Castles, Rastle and Nation (2018)

Reading comprehension requires multitude of processes, depend on purpose for reading

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Kintsch and Rawson (2005)

Construction-Integration model: macrostructure, microstructure and linguistics,

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Kendou et al. (2014)

Higher level processes: inferencing, WM and inhibition, attention allocation.

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Yuill and Oakhill (1991)

Better readers make more inferences.

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Cain and Oakhill (1999)

Older group poor readers less skilled at making inferences than younger typical group.

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Oakhill and Cain (2012)

Inference making predictor or later reading comprehension.

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Just and Carpenter (1992)

WM capacity determines how much info can stay active during reading.

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Engle and Conway (1998)

Keep info active in WM for making inferences and monitoring comprehension.

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Cain (2006)

Children with poor inhibition skills, less able to inhibit info, told to ignore.

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McInnes et al. (2003)

Poor attention, less able to monitor comprehension.

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Long, Seely and Oppy (1997)

Poor attention, easily distracted by irrelevant detail

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Cain and Oakhill (2007)

Poor attention, difficulty detecting breaks in coherence in text.

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Perfetti, Landi and Oakhill (2005)

Standards of Coherence, extent to which you want to understand and learn from a text.

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Duff et al. (2015)

Measure language at 7years, look at vocab at 18months, no difference between late talkers and TD.

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UK DLD Prevalence

LD=9.92%, DLD=7.58%

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Bishop

SLI at 4 - 53% had it at 5.5yrs - 56% had it at 8yrs - 35% relapsed

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Snowling et al. (2015)

Persistent DLD=56%, Resolving DLD=16%, Emerging DLD=28%

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Gopnik & Crago (1991)

SLI family members problems generating plural, correcting ungrammatical sentences, producing derivations and inflecting verbs.

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Rice and Wexler (2000)

TD Optional Infinite, omitting markers for finite verbs, DLD Extended Optional Infinite

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Rice et al. (1995)

Past tense task, TD 5yr=92%, TD 3yr=50%, DLD 5yr=27%

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Van de Lely (2005)

CGC, grammar deficit, problems with language that is structurally complex and hierarchically organised.

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Miller et al. (2001)

Longer RTs on linguistic and non-linguistic tasks

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Haylou-Thomas et al. (2004)

Simulated SLI by speeding up speech and increasing memory load.

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Strong et al. (2011)

Repeat 2 tones, SLI impaired when tones short or brief gap in between. Findings not replicated.

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Gathercole and Baddeley (1990)

Difficulty holding info in phonological memory, poor non-word repetition

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Ullman and Pierpoint (2005)

Abnormal frontal/basal ganglia, deficit in sequence learning (procedural), grammar impairment.

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Lum et al. (2011)

Verbal declarative memory impaired, both verbal and visuo-spatial procedural memory impaired.

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Leonard (1989,98)

SLI result of processing difficulties, problem acquiring less salient features ('ed')

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Joanisse and Seidenberg (2003)

Connectionism, anaphoric reference. Speech perception deficit - impaired PA - WM limitation - poor grammar

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Badcock (2011)

Evidence for different functioning in DLD during language task.

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Whitehouse and Bishop (2008)

Abnormal lateralisation during language tasks.

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Graham and Fisher (2013)

FOXP2 mutation in family, Chromosome 7 and 16 associated with non-word repetition.

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Bishop (2013)

SLI used inflected irregular verbs same rate as TD, use less overgeneralisations, more likely to accept incorrect grammar.

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Lum (2012)

SLI impaired procedural visuo-spatial task, normal declarative, impaired, verbal STM and WM.Grammar correlated with procedural in TD but declarative in SLI.

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Brown (1973)

Number of morphemes used increased with age as infants use more grammar.

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Bohannon, McWhinney and Snow (1990)

Feedback is inconsistent and depends on grammaticality of utterances.

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Saxton (1997)

Occasional contrast may enable developmental change.

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Farrar (1992)

Infants repeat adult expansions of their utterances, mean they are salient.

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Brown (1973)

U-shaped curve for acquisition of irregular past-tense/plurals

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Messer (2000)

Early multi-word utterances reflect those most frequently exposed to

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Lieven et al. (1997)

1-3 year olds used verbs in one type of construction

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Tomasello (2000)

Syntactic knowledge may arise without semantic knowledge.

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Chomsky (1965)

Can't acquire grammar from the environment due to inaccurate input.

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Christophe (2003)

6-12wk olds can discriminate between language of different head direction, English head initial, Japanese head final.

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Bickerton (1981,84)

Innate drive to learn language, Pidgins (simplified) and Creoles (syntactically rich)

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Golden-Meadow et al. (1995)

Deaf children not exposed to sign language develop gesture system with syntax.

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Pinker (1984, 89)

Innate knowledge of syntax and thematic roles, semantic bootstrapping, make inference about deep structure meaning based on surface meaning.

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Gleitman (1990)

Semantic bootstrapping requires exposure to utterances with clear action and agents, unlikely.

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Bowerman (1990)

Verbs that are easily mapped should be learned earlier through semantic bootstrapping but all verbs learnt at similar rate.

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Schlesinger (1988)

Semantic assimilation, early semantic and syntactic categories , use action-agent schema to analyse new sequence.

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Clahsen (1992)

Continuity hypothesis: all parameters available at birth but use is restricted by other functions

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Felix (1992)

Maturation hypothesis: parameters emerge over time as we mature.

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Snow (1972,94)

CDS challenges the claim that input is degenerate.

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Dockrell and Messer (1999)

CDS: more pauses, shorter utterances, more redundancy, segmented

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Fernald (1994)

Infants prefer CDS.

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Lieven (1994)

Cross cultural variation in CDS.

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Ellis and Wells (1980)

Rate of development not correlated with input.

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Harris and Coltheart (1986)

CDS function not linguistic, may be to bond.

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Pine (1994)

CDS may not necessary, but facilitatory.

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Elman (1993)

Connectionist model, network able to learn grammar but requires feedback which infants do not receive.

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Bates and Goodman (1997,99)

Vocab at 20months predicts grammar at 28months, no difference between early/late talkers.

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Plunkett and Wood (2003)

Word learning is a relatively simple affair

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Dockrell, Braisby and Best (2007)

Word learning requires extended, incremental learning.

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Duff et al. (2015)

Vocab knowledge predictor of later outcomes.

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Early Language Phases

Pre-linguistic 9months - Holophrastic - Telegraphic 18-24 months - Stage 2 Grammar 2-3 years - Adult-like Speech 5-6 years.

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Brown and Hanlon (1970)

Adult-directed speech, encouraging poor grammar and using child-like words.

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DeVilliers and DeVilliers (1979)

Breaking down words doesn't help if the child isn't ready.

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Tincoff and Jusczyz (1999)

6 month olds can understand mommy and daddy but looking a video for longer.

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Menyuk et al. (1995)

Comprehend 50 words at 13 months, produce 50 words at 18 months.

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Golinkoff and Hirsh-Pasek (1995)

17 month olds look at correct picture, at single word stage but can understand word order.

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Bates and Goodman (1997)

Relationship between grammar and production of 2 word utterances.

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Ganger and Brent (2004)

Not all children show a vocab spurt.

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Nelson (1973)

50 words: 66% object, 13% action, 9% state, 8% social and 4% function.

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Carey (1978)

14,000 by 6 years.

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Waxman and Senghas (1992)

Whole object constraint

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Ninio (1980)

Adults make it clear when referring to whole object

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Markmann (1992)

Mutual exclusivity

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Landall, Smith and Jones (1988)

Shape bias

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Markmann and Hutchinson (1984)

Taxonomic constraint: Similar category

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Gleitman (1990)

Syntactic bootstrapping

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Gathercole (1994)

Children happy to have more than one label

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Smith (2001)

Attentional Learning: perceptual cues co-occur in a predictable way

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Carey and Bartlett (1978)

Fast mapping, novel word matched to concept

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Dollaghan (1985)

Novel word quickly associated by 2 year olds, remember word later on

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Akhtar and Mantague (1999)

Novel word quickly associated by 15-18 months olds

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Horst and Samuelson (2008)

24 month olds good initial learning but not 5 minutes later

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Swingley (2010)

Establishing full lexical representation takes time.

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Henderson et al. (2012)

Sleep is crucial for integrating novel words.

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Gathercole (1995)

Speed of recall at 4 years correlated with current vocab and vocab growth.

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Dumay and Gaskell (2007)

Lexical competition of new word only present after sleep. Podgy/podcast.

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Davis and Gaskell (2009)

Hippocampus = plasticity, Neocortex = stability, integration of the 2 systems allow for offline transfer

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Tomasello (2000)

Verb island hypothesis: each verb forms its own structure, age 3-4 become more productive with novel verbs.

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Aitchison (1989)

The articulate mammal, similar features in animal and human communication, creativity, arbitrariness, semanticity, displacement, turn-taking

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Jusczyz and Aslin (1995)

Recognise familiar words at 7 months.

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Housten et al. (1997)

Remember familiar words at 7 months.

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Liberman et al. (1975)

Synthetic speech continuum, place of articulation and voice onset time

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Elmas et al. (1971)

Similar learning curve in 1 month olds, ba/pa

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Werker (1973)

Sensitivity to language boundaries lost after 10 months.

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Kuhl et al. (2006)

ra/la contrast, 6-8 months English and Japanese both sensitive, 10-12 months only English

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Kuhl and Miller (1978)

Chinchillas able to detect phoneme boundaries.

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Mehler et al. (1988)

Non-nutritive sucking 4 day olds, French infants show dishabituation when switch French to Russian, English only sensitive to switch from English to Italian

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Bertoncini and Mehler (1981)

Discriminate pat/tap not tsp/pst, understand permissible syllable

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DeCasper and Spence (1986)

Pregnant women read 3 stories, 3 day olds **** when heard familiar story and mother's voice

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DeCasper (1994)

Pregnant women read story 34-38 weeks, foetus heart rate decreased to familiar story.

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Development of Language and Literacy

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