Medicine through time extra facts

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Rational explanations

  • In winter we get colds. So Hippocrates thought that in winter the body created an excess of phlegm. Sadly, Hippocrates failed to see that a blocked nose, fevers and suchlike are symptoms of the disease - he thought they were the cause.
  • Someone with a cold (too much cold, wet phlegm) could be given chicken, pepper or wine (all considered hot and dry) to correct the imbalance.
  • The Hippocratic Oath is the promise made by doctors to obey rules of behaviour in their professional lives.
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Treating diseases

  • Purifying the air was also seen as important for helping with other health conditions. In the case of fainting, people burned feathers and made the patient breathe in their smoke.
  • Quacks were people without any medical knowledge who sold medical treatments. They'd sell their wares at fairs and markets, and they often did more harm than good.
  • Monastic hospitals were good for patients' health because they were more hygienic than elsewhere. Monasteries separated clean and dirty water. They had one water supply for cooking and drinking and one for drainage and washing, so people didn't have to drink dirty water. They also had good systems for getting rid of sewage.   
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Case study: Black Death

  • 'Deadly pestilence had suddenly broke out in the said place and neighbourhood, and had daily increased in severity, so that grave fears were entertained for the safety of those coming here at the time.' King Edward III on his decision to close Parliament.
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The Renaissance

  • There were some technological developments too. Peter Chamberlen invented the forceps (probably at some point in the 1600s), which are still used today to help with childbirth.
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Case study: William Harvey

  • Although people knew more about the body's anatomy because of Harvey, medical treatments and surgical techniques were still very basic.
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Case study: The Great Plague

  • The plague gradually began to disappear. Many people think the Great Fire of London in 1066 helped wipe it out, by effectively sterilising large parts of London - it burned down the old, crowded houses, killing the plague bacteria.
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Case study: Vaccination

  • Inoculation was successful in preventing the disease, but it meant patients had to experience smallpox before they could become immune - some died as a result.
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The germ theory

  • Pasteur's discovery was partly due to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's invention of the microscope in the 17th century. More advanced microscopes were developed during the 1800s. They allowed scientists to see much clearer images with a lot less light distortion.
  • 'I am afraid that the experiments you quote, Pasteur, will turn against you. The world in which you wish to take us is really too fantastic.' La Prasse, a french newspaper, 1860.
  • 'Thanks for having, by your brilliant researches, proved to me the truth of the germ theory. You furnished me with the principle upon which alone the antiseptic system can be carried out.' The founder of antiseptic surgery, Joseph Lister; in a letter to Louis Pasteur, 1874. 
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Developments in nursing

  • As well as improving hospital care, Florence Nightingale is credited with helping turn nursing into a respectable profession, particularly for women. This was formalised in 1936, when The Royal College of Nursing was founded. It began to admit men in 1960.
  • The 1800s also saw a massive increase in hospital building. Hospitals became cleaner and more specialist catering for rich patients as well as the poor.  
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The public health act 1875

  • The 1848 Act's impact was limited - towns could set up health boards but very few chose to, and those that did often refused to spend any money.
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Modern ideas - causes of disease

  • One of the biggest breakthroughs in genetic research was made in 2003 with the completion of the Human Genome Project - this identified all the genes in human DNA.
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Developments in diagnosis

  • Blood tests make diagnosis more accurate, providing doctors with clearer information of what is wrong. This means they can be more confident when deciding how best to treat their patients.
  • Early medical scans used dyes so that blood vessles and organs showed up on the X-ray images. These were swallowed or injected into the patient.
  • An important change in the 20th century is the use of monitoring devices by people in their own homes - this has allowed individuals greater control over their own health.
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Case study: Penicillin

  • Today, penicillin is used to treat a range of bacterial infections, including chest infections and skin infections. Other antibiotics were discovered after 1945, including treatments for lung infections, acne and bacterial meningitis.
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Modern treatments

  • Streptococcus caused blood poisoning which was often fatal, and which could be contracted from very minor wounds. Many surgeons contracted it after cutting themselves in the operating theatre.
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Modern surgery

  • Patients always suffer some blood loss during surgery. If a lot of blood is lost, this can be fatal. Blood transfusions helped to prevent this cause of death by allowing surgeons to replace any blood lost during surgery.
  • These new types of surgery have made it safer for patients by limiting the possibility of infection and blood loss, as well as reducing the shock and trauma of surgery.
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The national health service

  • The NHS has encountered some problems in providing access to care. In 1980 Black Report suggested that the NHS hadn't improved the health of the very poorest. Patients also had to suffer long waiting times during the 1990s. In 2000 the government drew up an 'NHS plan' to deal with waiting times among other areas.
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The government's role in healthcare

  • In 1940, the easiest way to reach children was through schools, so 5-15 year olds were vaccinated more than the youngest children who were most vulnerable. The establishment of the NHS in 1948 allowed the government to vaccine all children by their first birthday.
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Case study: Lung cancer

  • These measures have contributed to a decline in smoking. The percentage of men who smoke cigarettes has fallen from 65% in 1948 to around 20% in 2010 and for women it's dropped from 41% to 20% in the same period.
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