no concordance rate is 100%, meaning that it must be a predisposition as opposed to a certainty
The role of the environment is crucial when considering the impact of genetics - this nature/nurture debate is also known as the diathesis stress model
problems with research can include the debate as to whether MZ twins are treated more similarly be parents than DZ twins
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Stress
Cause and effect is unclear - it may be that any link between stress and addiction is merely a correlation as it is still unclear if stress is the result or cause of addiction
heightened dependency is found in poor urban areas with high levels of stress. However, in these areas there is also generally high availability of the substance, meaning it is also unclear as to whether addiction is the result of stress or simply the high availabilty / exposure to addictive substances
use of animals in research can be problematic with regards to generalisation; validity of research; cost vs. benefit; ethics
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Personality
the idea of addictive personality is supported by contnuing addicts (such as in smoking, drugs, alchohol or even exercise)
other factors may also play a role - such as genetics and childhood trauma for example
cause and effect is also unclear - it is unknown as to whether the personality causes addiction or if the addiction has altered the personality of the individual
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Family Influences
strength of family influence depends on the age of the child and the strength of the relationship - this is not constant
observation does not always lead to imitation - there are cognitive processes involved as well as mediational processes from other sources and the percieved self-efficacy of the individual
isolation and control of family influences from other risk factors is very hard
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Peers
Social context does not always refer to peers - economic position and social deprivation should also be considered
the influence of peers is different at different ages - it is only really during adolescence that the influence of peers is greater than that of parents
instead of peer group influencing dependency, addictive individuals select peer groups that conform to their behaviour (thus making cause and effect unclear)
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