Behaviour modification

• The arguement put forward by the behaviourist approach - that all human behaviour is learned - then it should be possible to encourage the unlearning of behaviour by applying the same principles that brought it about in the first place.
• Behaviour modification programmes are designed with the aim of reinforcing obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience.
• Prisons use token economy systems to achieve this.

• Based on operant conditioning.
• TE involves reinforcing desirable behaviour with a token that can then be exchanged for a reward.
• Within the walls of the prison, desirable behaviour may take many forms but is likely to include avoiding conflicts, following prison  rules, keeping one's cell orderly, etc.
• Prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour.
• Tokens are secondary reinforcers because they derive their value from their association with a reward.
• The reward varies according to the institution, the reward may include exchanging tokens for a phone call to a loved one, time in the gym, or exercise yard, extra cigarettes or food.
• Non-compliance, or disobedience may result in the tokens and the associated privileges, being withheld or removed as a form of punishment.

• Behaviour modificaion programmes, the desirable behaviour is identified (e.g. avoiding confrontation), broken down into small steps (called increments) and a baseline measure is established.
• The behaviours to be reinforced are decided upon, and all those who come into contact with offenders must follow the same regime of selective reinforcement.
• The prison officers may reinforce a particular prisoner for working positively in a group, 'turning the other cheek' when provoked, etc.
• The whole programme can be overseen by prison officials who are able to monitor the programme's effectiveness on the management of the prison as a whole, as well as on the behaviour of individual offenders.

Research Example

• Tom Hobbs and Michael Holt introduced a token economy programme with groups of young of young delinquents across three behavioural units (4th unit acted as a control group). They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy group. A similar effect was found with offenders in an adult prison.

• Easy to implement - There is no need expertise or specialist professionals as there would be for other forms of treatment such as anger management. Token economy systems can be implemented by virtually anyone in the institution. They are also cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have been established.
  • The use of such systems does depend on a consistent approach from prison staff.
  • John Bassett and Edward Blanchard found any benefits were lost after staff applied the techniques inconsistently due to factors such as lack of appropriate training of staff or high staff turnover.

• Ronald Blackburn, suggested that behaviour modification has little rehabilitative value and any positive changes in behaviour that may occur whilst the offender is in prison may quickly be lost when they are released.
  • Token economy is at its best when establishing appropriate conduct within prison with respect to a very specific set of behaviours but progress is unlikely to extend beyond the custodial setting.
  • This may be becuase law-abiding behaviour is not always reinforced on the outside or the rewards the offender recieves from breaking the law, such as group status, may be more powerful.

• There are some ethical issues of behaviour modification. The terms and conditions of BM are regarded as manipulative and dehumanising by several commentators (Moya and Achtenburg).
  • Token economy in some prisons are obligatory for all offenders rather than optional.
  • Critics have suggested that a programme, which may involve withdrawal of privileges such as exercise and contact with loved ones is ethically questionable.

• Behaviour modification encourages a passive form of learning rather than a superficial one. Other treatments such as anger management are much more active in their approach - the offender is required to reflect on the cause of their offending and is given greater responsibility for their own rehabilitation.
  • Offenders may play along with the token economy system in order to access rewards, but this produces little change in their overall character. This may explain why, once the treatment is over, the offender will quickly regress back to their former behaviour.
• Individual tailored programmes are most effective according to Clinton Field et al. He examined a token economy programme used with young people with behavioural problems. The programme was effective, although there were still a number of young people who did not respond. These youths were then placed on a special programme where the rewards were more immediate and more frequent and the results were better. This suggests that for a maximum effectiveness the programme should be designed so that the rewards, and frequency of rewards suit each individual as it has to feel worth it for the offender.