History of Medicine 3

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  • Watson and Crick
    • History of Medicine 3
      • Understanding Genetics
        • 1. During the 19th century, Mendel showed how human characteristics could be passed between generations.
        • 2. In the 20th century new technology let scientists analyse human cells in greater detail. They found that every cell in the body contains DNA-codes controlling the genes of each person.
        • 3. James Watson and Francis Crick worked together to discover how the genetic codes of DNA worked together.
        • 4. They analysed X-ray crystallograph--y by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin and eventually worked out the double helix structure of DNA.
        • 5. In 1990 Watson led the Human Genome Project and started identifying and mapping every gene in human DNA.
      • DNA Technology and New Possibilities.
        • Improved vaccines,
        • Better insulin for diabetics.
        • New techniques for skin grafts.
        • Better understanding of conditions such as Downs Syndrome.
        • Better understanding of whether people might develop certain types of cancer.
        • The discovery that stem cells can be grown into different cells.
        • Continuing research means that faulty genes could be corrected and genetic diseases could be prevented in the future.
          • What Led to Setting Up the NHS
            • History of Medicine 3
              • Understanding Genetics
                • 1. During the 19th century, Mendel showed how human characteristics could be passed between generations.
                • 2. In the 20th century new technology let scientists analyse human cells in greater detail. They found that every cell in the body contains DNA-codes controlling the genes of each person.
                • 3. James Watson and Francis Crick worked together to discover how the genetic codes of DNA worked together.
                • 4. They analysed X-ray crystallograph--y by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin and eventually worked out the double helix structure of DNA.
                • 5. In 1990 Watson led the Human Genome Project and started identifying and mapping every gene in human DNA.
              • DNA Technology and New Possibilities.
                • Improved vaccines,
                • Better insulin for diabetics.
                • New techniques for skin grafts.
                • Better understanding of conditions such as Downs Syndrome.
                • Better understanding of whether people might develop certain types of cancer.
                • The discovery that stem cells can be grown into different cells.
                • Continuing research means that faulty genes could be corrected and genetic diseases could be prevented in the future.
                  • What Led to Setting Up the NHS
                    • People wanted better conditions after witnessing the poverty that the evacuated children at been living in.
                    • There was now more acceptance about the government being involved in people's lives.
                    • Significant medical breakthroughs meant that more could be done for the sick.
                    • There had been a need to organise hospitals and medical staff during the war and this had worked successfully
                    • The Beveridge Report in 1942 identified disease as a problem for the government to deal with after the war.
              • Magic Bullets
                • 1. Koch discovered that different chemical dyes stained specific microbes and Emil von Behring discovered that the body manufactures antibodies that only attack the microbe causing the disease.
                • 2. Paul Ehrlich and his team of researchers searched for a "magic bullet," a chemical compound that would attack and kill the microbe causing a specific disease.
                • 3. The team, helped by German government funding, worked for many years. They tested many compounds of chemicals and dye to find one that could cure syphilis.
                • 4. In 1909, Dr Hata joined the team and discovered that they had rejected a compound that had actually worked.
                • 5. In 1932, Gerhard Domagk developed the second magic bullet, Prontosil, which cured some types of blood poisoning.
                • 6. Other scientists checking Domagk's work found that the key ingredient in Prontosil, sulphonamide, also cured pneumonia, scarlet fever and meningitis.
              • The Growth of the Pharmaceutica-l Industry
                • Chemical cures and substances that cured bacterial infections led to rapid growth in the pharmaceutica-l industry.
                • At first, most chemical cures were injected but technology developed in the late 19th century was now used to mass produce pills so people could take them at home.
                • Since 1900, technology  has helped the development of medicine in a variety of ways:
                  • Research
                    • X-RAY, Crystallograph-y and electron microscopes.
                  • Treatment
                    • Pacemakers, dialysis machines, incubators, radiotherapy and hypodermic needles.
                  • Diagnosis
                    • MRI, CT and ultrasound scans, X-ray machines and endoscopes.
                  • Monitoring
                    • Blood pressure kits and blood sugar level kits.
              • Care For the Sick (1900-1948)
                • During the early 20th century, women in the family were mainly responsible for the sick.
                • Doctors were only used if a person was seriously ill.
                • Chemists provided medicines for the public.
                • General Practitioners (GPs) may have carried out minor surgery in a local cottage hospital. Anything serious would be referred to a specialist consultant.
                • Many hospitals offered only basic care for the sick but some were aimed at specific groups of people
                • Many hospitals were funded by charities so effective fundraising was vital.
                • The government started to take more responsibility for public health due to the need for change after the Boer War.
                • Doctors could choose who to accept as patients and could refuse those who could not pay them.
                • Although the government was taking an increased role in improving the health of the nation, by 1939 there was still no national organisation offering the same level of care to everyone.
              • Access to Health Care
                • Despite the public health reforms of the late 19th century, the standard of living among the poor remained low.
                • Surveys showed that it was difficult for the poor to afford decent housing and food. Reason for this poverty was often linked to ill health and unemployment
                • Liberal government, elected in 1905 passed laws to improve health:
                  • Midwives Act 1902
                    • All midwives have to be trained and registered.
                  • 1906- Free school meals for poor children
                  • 1907-School Medical Service introduced and health visitors to check on the health of young children.
                  • 1908- Old Age Pensions Act.
                  • National Insurance Act 1911
                    • Every worker earning less than £160 a year was expected to join the scheme, in which contributions by the worker, employer and government were made to fund free medical care, offer six payments for up to 6 months and support payment whilst unemployed for up to 15 weeks.
              • The Effects of the Second World War on Public Health
                • Awareness of poverty and poor health increased during the war as people were shocked to find out that many evacuee children were not used to running water or proper toilets.
                • This created a desire for higher standards of living and health after the war and the setting up of a National Health Service (NHS)
                • Diets also changed as food was rationed and fats and sugary options were in short supply.
              • Developments in Public Health
                • Average life expectancy by 1931 had risen to 58 for male and 62 for females as the Government began to do more to make improvements
                • Secondary school pupils received medical inspections.
                • Free milk for poor primary school children was introduced in 1934.
                • Health clinics gave vaccinations and sold baby food cheaply.
                • Many hospitals were brought under local authority control.
                • Private health insurance schemes could provide treatments for those not covered by the government schemes.
                • Better understanding of disease, developments in vaccinations and better treatment opportunities were available.
                • Education about disease, healthcare and prevention increased.
              • Why was the NHS Set Up?
                • The government had become increasingly concerned about inequalities in health care, especially once woman got the vote in 1918.
                • Bombing raids during the Second World War produced many casualties so the government set up the Emergency Medical Service, which brought hospitals throughout the country.
                • Some new hospitals and over 1,000 new operating theaters were built and additional equipment was provided.
                • Hospitals provided free treatment, blood transfusions services were created and an ambulance service was set up, proving that Government control over health care could be successful.
                • When the war ended in 1945, the new Labour government made plans for a National Health Service which was set up in 1948
              • The NHS
                • The government  had been gradually taking more responsibility for the provision of sanitation, improving the standard of of living and providing access   to health care
                • Taxes were used to pay for a wide range of services:
                  • Treatment by dentists and opticians.
                  • Health care for pregnant woman and young children
                  • Ambulances and emergency treatment
                  • Health care for the elderly
                • The NHS had a significant impact on people's health and marked a significant improvement in the accessibility of medical care for poorer people.
                • Through the NHS people could receive treatment at the early stages of illness and therefore had a better chance of recovery.
              • Formation of the NHS
                • 1. The Beveridge Report suggested that the government should improve public health.
                • 2. New Labour government accepted these recommendati-ons and planned the NHS
                • 3. Bevan faced opposition from many people. Doctors did not want to lose income from private patients.
                • 4. Bevan published ideas which persuaded patients that they should ask to be registered as NHS patients.
                • 5. Pressure was put on doctors to join the NHS or lose their patients.
                • 6. NHS was launched in 1948
            • People wanted better conditions after witnessing the poverty that the evacuated children at been living in.
            • There was now more acceptance about the government being involved in people's lives.
            • Significant medical breakthroughs meant that more could be done for the sick.
            • There had been a need to organise hospitals and medical staff during the war and this had worked successfully
            • The Beveridge Report in 1942 identified disease as a problem for the government to deal with after the war.
      • Magic Bullets
        • 1. Koch discovered that different chemical dyes stained specific microbes and Emil von Behring discovered that the body manufactures antibodies that only attack the microbe causing the disease.
        • 2. Paul Ehrlich and his team of researchers searched for a "magic bullet," a chemical compound that would attack and kill the microbe causing a specific disease.
        • 3. The team, helped by German government funding, worked for many years. They tested many compounds of chemicals and dye to find one that could cure syphilis.
        • 4. In 1909, Dr Hata joined the team and discovered that they had rejected a compound that had actually worked.
        • 5. In 1932, Gerhard Domagk developed the second magic bullet, Prontosil, which cured some types of blood poisoning.
        • 6. Other scientists checking Domagk's work found that the key ingredient in Prontosil, sulphonamide, also cured pneumonia, scarlet fever and meningitis.
      • The Growth of the Pharmaceutica-l Industry
        • Chemical cures and substances that cured bacterial infections led to rapid growth in the pharmaceutica-l industry.
        • At first, most chemical cures were injected but technology developed in the late 19th century was now used to mass produce pills so people could take them at home.
        • Since 1900, technology  has helped the development of medicine in a variety of ways:
          • Research
            • X-RAY, Crystallograph-y and electron microscopes.
          • Treatment
            • Pacemakers, dialysis machines, incubators, radiotherapy and hypodermic needles.
          • Diagnosis
            • MRI, CT and ultrasound scans, X-ray machines and endoscopes.
          • Monitoring
            • Blood pressure kits and blood sugar level kits.
      • Care For the Sick (1900-1948)
        • During the early 20th century, women in the family were mainly responsible for the sick.
        • Doctors were only used if a person was seriously ill.
        • Chemists provided medicines for the public.
        • General Practitioners (GPs) may have carried out minor surgery in a local cottage hospital. Anything serious would be referred to a specialist consultant.
        • Many hospitals offered only basic care for the sick but some were aimed at specific groups of people
        • Many hospitals were funded by charities so effective fundraising was vital.
        • The government started to take more responsibility for public health due to the need for change after the Boer War.
        • Doctors could choose who to accept as patients and could refuse those who could not pay them.
        • Although the government was taking an increased role in improving the health of the nation, by 1939 there was still no national organisation offering the same level of care to everyone.
      • Access to Health Care
        • Despite the public health reforms of the late 19th century, the standard of living among the poor remained low.
        • Surveys showed that it was difficult for the poor to afford decent housing and food. Reason for this poverty was often linked to ill health and unemployment
        • Liberal government, elected in 1905 passed laws to improve health:
          • Midwives Act 1902
            • All midwives have to be trained and registered.
          • 1906- Free school meals for poor children
          • 1907-School Medical Service introduced and health visitors to check on the health of young children.
          • 1908- Old Age Pensions Act.
          • National Insurance Act 1911
            • Every worker earning less than £160 a year was expected to join the scheme, in which contributions by the worker, employer and government were made to fund free medical care, offer six payments for up to 6 months and support payment whilst unemployed for up to 15 weeks.
      • The Effects of the Second World War on Public Health
        • Awareness of poverty and poor health increased during the war as people were shocked to find out that many evacuee children were not used to running water or proper toilets.
        • This created a desire for higher standards of living and health after the war and the setting up of a National Health Service (NHS)
        • Diets also changed as food was rationed and fats and sugary options were in short supply.
      • Developments in Public Health
        • Average life expectancy by 1931 had risen to 58 for male and 62 for females as the Government began to do more to make improvements
        • Secondary school pupils received medical inspections.
        • Free milk for poor primary school children was introduced in 1934.
        • Health clinics gave vaccinations and sold baby food cheaply.
        • Many hospitals were brought under local authority control.
        • Private health insurance schemes could provide treatments for those not covered by the government schemes.
        • Better understanding of disease, developments in vaccinations and better treatment opportunities were available.
        • Education about disease, healthcare and prevention increased.
      • Why was the NHS Set Up?
        • The government had become increasingly concerned about inequalities in health care, especially once woman got the vote in 1918.
        • Bombing raids during the Second World War produced many casualties so the government set up the Emergency Medical Service, which brought hospitals throughout the country.
        • Some new hospitals and over 1,000 new operating theaters were built and additional equipment was provided.
        • Hospitals provided free treatment, blood transfusions services were created and an ambulance service was set up, proving that Government control over health care could be successful.
        • When the war ended in 1945, the new Labour government made plans for a National Health Service which was set up in 1948
      • The NHS
        • The government  had been gradually taking more responsibility for the provision of sanitation, improving the standard of of living and providing access   to health care
        • Taxes were used to pay for a wide range of services:
          • Treatment by dentists and opticians.
          • Health care for pregnant woman and young children
          • Ambulances and emergency treatment
          • Health care for the elderly
        • The NHS had a significant impact on people's health and marked a significant improvement in the accessibility of medical care for poorer people.
        • Through the NHS people could receive treatment at the early stages of illness and therefore had a better chance of recovery.
      • Formation of the NHS
        • 1. The Beveridge Report suggested that the government should improve public health.
        • 2. New Labour government accepted these recommendati-ons and planned the NHS
        • 3. Bevan faced opposition from many people. Doctors did not want to lose income from private patients.
        • 4. Bevan published ideas which persuaded patients that they should ask to be registered as NHS patients.
        • 5. Pressure was put on doctors to join the NHS or lose their patients.
        • 6. NHS was launched in 1948
    • James Watson was an American chemist and Francis Crick was a British physicist.
    • Together they studied the structure of DNA at the Medical Research Council at Cambridge University.
    • In 1962 they received the Nobel Peace Prize. Their work helped to improve our understanding of genetic conditions.
  • Penicillin
    • 1. In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed that bacteria in a Petri dish were being killed by penicillin mold. He tested it on other bacteria and discovered that the mold produced an excellent antibiotic.
    • 2. In 1929, Fleming published his findings but did not have the funding to continue his research.
    • 4. It proved effective on mice, so they tested it on humans. Penicillin was able to kill the bacteria and therefore the infection- it was a miracle drug.
    • 5. However, the mold had to be grown in huge quantities to be effective. British factories and British drug companies were working flat out to produce other drugs needed for the war.
    • 6. In June 1941, Florey asked US drug companies for help. They initially refused but when the US entered the war and antibiotics were needed for injured soldiers, the US government offered funding.
  • 3. Several years later, Howard Florey, Ernst Chain and their team continued Fleming's research on penicillin.

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