Psychology Core Studies

In Loftus and Palmers Study what was the aim in Experiment 1?

See if using different verbs to describe a crash would effect estimates of speed

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How many participants were there in Experiment 1 of Loftus and Palmers study?

45

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What design was experiment 1 of Loftus and Palmers study?

Laboratory experiment with independent measures

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In the procedure of Loftus and Palmer's 1st Experiment how many films of car crashes were shown and how many speeds were known already?

7 films shown, 4 speeds of cars known

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What were participants asked to do after watching the crashes?

Write an account of the accident and answer some questions

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What was the critical question in experiment 1?

About how fast were the cars going when they 'hit' each other?

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What were the different verbs used by experimenters in the critical question?

Hit, bumped, collided or smashed

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What was the dependent variable in experiment 1?

Estimate of speed of cars

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What type of data was collected?

Quantitative data

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What was the aim in Experiment 2?

Investigate whether results of exp 1 were actually distortion of memory and see whether participants incorrectly remembered broken glass

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In the procedure of the 2nd Experiment what was the critical question the first 50 participants were asked?

About how fast were the cars going when they hit/bumped/collided/smashed each other?

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What was the control group in Experiment 2 asked?

Whether they saw broken glass at the scene

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Which verb produced the highest estimates of speed? What happened with the broken glass in relation to this verb?

'Smashed' and twice as many reported seeing broken glass when they heard smashed compared to hit or when they hadn't been asked about speed at all

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What did experiment 2 suggest about distortion of memory & response bias?

Suggested that the estimates of speed weren't due to response bias and that verbs can actually distort memory

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Quantitative data was collected, what points can be given on this?

Allowed easy comparison however didn't allow participants to give their thoughts on what they remembered

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What is one possible ethical issue in this study?

Possibility participants had been in a car accident meaning they may have felt uncomfortable whilst watching the videos

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What can be said about the validity of this study?

Reduced by lack of realism & participants may have figured out the aim especially in exp. 2

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What can be said about the reliability of this study?

Good reliability due to standardisation and procedure is replicable

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Is the sample used in this study representative?

No because students are vulnerable to demand characteristics therefore it isn't generalisable

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What practical applications could this study have?

Important in helping authorities understand how to question witnesses following accidents and crimes

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What was the aim in Grant et al's study of context dependent memory?

Test the effect of noise as a source of context the studying retrieval of information

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How many participants were there in this study?

39 recruited by opportunity sampling

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What was the IV in Grant's study?

Whether study and test conditions were matching or mismatching

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In the procedure what were participants given?

2 page article on subject unfamiliar to them

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What were they asked to do with this material?

Read it through, highlight if they wanted to

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Despite the condition what control what put in place?

Use of headphones with all participants

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What 2 tests were they given after a 2 minute break?

A recall test of 10 short questions and recognition test of multiple choice

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How was the dependent variable measured?

By scores on recall and recognition tests

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What did the procedure show in terms of matched and mismatched conditions?

Participants performed slightly better when conditions were matched

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In terms of the research method what aspect of the procedure wasn't controlled that could create a problem?

Initial reading time of the article

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What type of data was gathered in this study?

Quantitative

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What can be said about the validity of this study?

Controls and realistic materials contribute to validity however participants had no knowledge of article for students this would be different

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What can be said about the reliability of this study?

Several aspects standardised ensuring reliability of procedure allowing for replication

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What was the aim in Lee et al's study of evaluations of lying and truth telling?

Investigate cross-cultural differences in children's understanding morally of truth-telling and lying

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How many participants were there in Lee's study?

120 Chinese children and 108 Canadian children

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In the procedure groups were split into halves, what were the two types of stories read?

Social story condition and physical story condition

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Within these stories there were 4 in each condition but 2 within each 4, what were the differences?

Antisocial and social

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What were the participants given to rate the children characters behaviour?

A 7-scale rating chart from very very good to very very naughty

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Which group of children rated truth telling less positively and why?

Chinese children, Lee suggested this was because they were brought up with the values of modesty

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What does Lee's study show about universal moral judgements?

It isn't always universal as it is influenced by the culture and society you live in

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What is a strength of a cross-cultural study?

Differences and similarities found point to both universal & culturally specific causes

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What type of data was collected in this study?

Quantitative mainly through 7 point scale but some qualitative through post-test questions asking why they gave that score for the behaviour

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What points can be given about the validity of this study?

Task of moral judgement is different here to what it would be in real life therefore ecological validity questionable

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What points can be given about reliability of this study?

All participants had similar experiences as same materials were used and instructions were standardised making it replicable

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What practical applications can be shown in this study?

Shows moral development isn't determined by age but by the cultural norms of society you live in

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What was in aim in Kohlberg's stages of moral development study?

Investigate development of moral reasoning from adolescence into early adulthood across different cultures

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What type of design was Kohlberg's study?

Longitudinal design

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How were participants involved in the study?

Every 3 years presented with set of moral dilemmas where they had to say what the character in dilemma should do, this was also one in Taiwan and Mexico

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Kohlberg came up with 3 stages of moral development, What was the first one and its subsections?

Pre-Conventional Stage: Stage 1: Orientation towards punishment and deference to power, Stage 2: orientation towards self interest

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Kohlberg came up with 3 stages of moral development, What was the second one and its subsections?

Conventional Stage: Stage 3: Good-boy good-girl orientation, Stage 4: Orientation towards authority

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Kohlberg came up with 3 stages of moral development, What was the third one and its subsections?

Post-Conventional Stage: Stage 5: Social Contract orientation, Stage 6: Orientation towards ethical principles

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What was found about cross-cultural contexts?

People growing up in a range of cultural contexts go through same stages

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What is a strength of a longitudinal design?

Eliminates individual differences and extraneous variables

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What type of data was gathered?

Qualitative in form of interview responses

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Was the validity good in this study, why?

No because lack of realism, moral dilemmas very different in real life however design itself has good validity as it eliminates extraneous variables

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Was the sample used representative, why?

No because it could be seen as ethnocentric however range of different social classes used

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What was the aim of Chaney's Funhaler study?

Test whether positive reinforcement with funhaler would improve compliance in young asthmatics

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Before the procedure started what did the parents of the participants have to do?

Fill out a closed questionnaire about the Childs original inhaler

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What were the questions in the questionnaire about?

Parents and Childs attitudes towards funhaler

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What were the funhalers designed to do?

Distract children from the medicine they were getting with whistle and spinning disks

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What were the funhalers designed to reward?

Deep breathing, which meant medication was going in properly

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After two weeks for use of comparison what were parents asked to do?

Fill out the same questionnaire but towards the funhaler

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What percentage reported pleasure in using the funhaler?

68%

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What type of reinforcement was used?

Operant conditioning with self reinforcement

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What type of data was collected in this study?

Quantitative data collected

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What is a weakness of lack of qualitative data?

They assumed improved compliance was due to funhaler

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What points can be made about the validity of this study?

High ecological validity due to realistic environment however possible order effects

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Was the reliability of this study good, why?

Yes, it was standardised and would be therefore easy to replicate

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What practical applications could come from this study?

Correct compliance to young people in medical regime is important

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What was the aim in Bandura's study of imitation of aggression?

To investigate observational learning of aggression

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How many participants were there?

72

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What were the 3 IVs tested?

Behaviour of models, sex of child and sex of model

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In Group 1 what were the children exposed to?

An aggressive model

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In Group 1 how many children saw a same sex model?

6 boys and 6 girls

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In Group 2 what were the children shown?

Non-aggressive model

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In Group 2 how many children saw a same sex model?

6 boys and 6 girls

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Group 3 was the control group, what did they see?

Saw no model of behaviour

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In the aggressive condition (modelling behaviour) what did the model do?

Kicked and hit Bobo doll and said aggressive things

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In non-aggressive condition (modelling behaviour) what did the adult do?

Set out the toys and played with them, didn't touch the Bobo doll

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What happened in the aggression arousal stage?

Children taken into room, played with nice toys for 2 minutes but were then told they couldn't as they were reserved for others

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How did experimenters test for delayed imitation?

Observed children playing for next 20 minutes

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What were the 3 types of aggression recorded?

Imitative, partially imitative and non-imitative

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What did the quantitative data collected show?

Significant differences in levels of imitation between aggressive and other two groups

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Give one conclusion that can be made from this study

Children selectively imitate gender specific behaviour so boys are more likely than girls to imitate physical behaviour

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What did lack of qualitative data mean for this study?

Children couldn't give their thoughts whilst they imitated the behaviour

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What points can be made about the validity of this study?

Different to anything that would be experienced in real life so lacks ecological validity

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What points can be made about the reliability of this study?

Excellent as conditions are all controlled and all participants had similar experiences

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What practical applications could come from this study?

Children who witness domestic violence are more likely to imitate their parents behaviour

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What was the aim in Casey's Study of delayed gratification?

Investigate the extent to which the ability to resist temptation at a pre=school level affected the same participants in adult hood

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What type of design was used?

Longitudinal study, composed of 2 quasi experiments

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In Experiment 1 what was the sample divided into?

High delayers and low delayers

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Where was this experiment completed?

In participants own homes

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What did the 'cool' presentation include?

Presentation of neutral male & female faces

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How were participants to know when to press the button or not?

It was made clear which was the go and which was the no-go stimulus

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What was acquired?

Accuracy and reaction times

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How did the 'hot' and 'cool' versions differ?

Facial expressions used

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What device was used in Experiment 2 to record responses to facial stimulation & reaction times?

Electronic response pad

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In experiment 1 what was shown about low delayers?

More likely to respond mistakenly in no-go trials and performed worse in 'hot' version of task

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In experiment 2 which part of the brain was shown to be critical in withholding responses?

Right inferior frontal gyrus

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What was shown about this section of the brain in low delayers?

There were reduced activities in this region

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Give one conclusion that can come from this study

Resistance to temptation appears to be relatively stable characteristic of an individual over time

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What type of data was collected and what points can be made about it?

Quantitative data collected, allows for direct comparison of conditions

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What points can be made about the validity of this study?

Ecological validity is key weakness as nature and presentation of task was artificial

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What can be said about the reliability of this study?

Method used is fairly reliable and if it was to be repeated using same equipment it would most likely get similar results

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Is the sample used generalisable?

Findings geographically limited and only represent people from certain family backgrounds so no

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What practical applications could be derived from this study?

Further evidence of localisation of neural function for tasks involving rewards & resisting temptation

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What was the aim of Sperry's split brain study?

Test the effects of hemispheric deconnection

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What measures design was used?

Repeated measures

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There were 3 types of stimuli used, what were they?

Tactile, auditory and visual

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Give an example of how the visual stimulus was used

Picture of object presented to either RVF or LVF, participant then shown the stimulus to other VF to see if they recognised it

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Give another example of how a visual stimulus was used

Presented to LVF or RVF participant then asked to describe stimulus OR write it down

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What did the results of the visual tests show?

Info shown in one visual field could be recognised only by same visual field & info presented to RVF could be written with right hand but if presented to LVF participant said they hadn't seen it

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What did the results of the tactile tests show?

Objects placed in right hand could be described in speech or writing and objects placed in one hand could only be recognised by same hand

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Give one conclusion from this study

Each hemisphere in split brain patients is independent including in memory

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Give one improvement that could be made to the research method used

Control group of epileptics would have been better comparison than to normal people

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What type of data was collected?

Both types

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What did the quantitative data prove?

Theories on hemispheric deconnection were correct

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What points can be made about the validity of this study?

Lack of ecological validity as findings may not be generalisable beyond laboratory setting

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What can be said about the reliability of this study?

Highly controlled and easy to replicate as his results have been supported however may be some reorganisation of language in right hemisphere if epilepsy damaged left

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What practical applications can come from this study?

Few effects of the surgery and could actually help patients understand why they have mental tiredness

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Is the sample generalisable?

Possibly not due to gender differences in lateralisation of language

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What was the aim of Blakemoore and Cooper's study on impact of earl visual experience?

Investigate effect on kittens visual development of restricted environment containing only horizontal or vertical stripes

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What type of design was used?

Laboratory experiment with independent measures

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How long did kittens spend in the visual display apparatus a day?

5 hours

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What was the visual display apparatus?

Vertical cylinder with perspex floor either covered in horizontal black and white stripes or vertical

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How were the DV's measured?

Kittens put in small room and observed on how they jumped from a chair, avoided & judged distance of objects

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How was the kittens response to lines of orientation tested?

Done by anethesing the cat and presenting edges of light whilst eyes were kept open and recordings from individual neurons were taken

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Give 3 results of this study

Guided themselves mainly by touch, kittens raised in horizontal couldn't detect vertically aligned objects and kittens recovered from many defeciences

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Give one conclusion from this study

Brian development is dependent on functional demands of the brain rather than genetic factors

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What were the ethical issues associated with this study?

Animals can experience pain and distress and this was caused due to invasive psychological procedures however it justified use of animals as this study couldn't be done on humans

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What can be said in terms of the validity of this study?

High levels of control on animals removed extraneous variables however this is very different to a normal human environment although cats visual cortex's are similar to ours

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What limits the reliability?

Fact that only 2 kittens were used

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What practical applications could come from this study?

Understanding effects of visual deprivation in growing children, if not recognised early enough the cells associated with visual defects could die out

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What was the aim in Maguire's study of taxi drivers?

Investigate whether there'd be a difference in hippocampal volume dependent whether there was great demand on participant for extensive navigational skills

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What design was used?

Quasi experiment with correlational analysis

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What control was put in place when studying the MRI scans?

Only 1 experienced individual analysed them and was unaware of the participants condition

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What was used to calculate the volume of grey matter?

Voxel-based morphometry

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What was pixel-counting used for?

To compare 16 taxi drivers to the 16 controls

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What part of the brain had a significant difference between the controls and the taxi-drivers?

Right and left areas of hippocampus

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Draw one conclusion from this study

Spatial relations in environment changes volume of grey matter in hippocampus so volume increases dependent on demand for navigational skills

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What data was collected in this study?

Quantitative, allows researchers to be more confident in conclusions

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What points can be raised about the validity of this study?

Validity of the comparison of taxi-drivers and control group could be questioned As occupations of control group weren’t considered its possible that group included individuals with extensive navigational skills

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What can be said about the reliability of this study?

It has good reliability and would be easily replicable

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What practical applications could come from this study?

Identification of brain plasticity in adults gives hope for rehabilitating those with brain damage

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What was the aim of Freud's study?

Give an account of a boy suffering from a phobia of horses and use this to illustrate the sections of the Oedipus complex

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Who were the participants?

One Jewish boy from Vienna known as 'Little Hans'

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What design was used?

Clinical Case Study

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