Development Lecture 4

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What is an issue with studying development?
You have to identify change over time, this means that we are looking at different ages and how physiological processes develop.
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Can you tell infants what to do in an experiment?
No, they do not understand it
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Can infants talk or explain themselves?
No
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Why are infants difficult to study?
They often change mood/state, you cannot ask them to stay awake/happy all the time, they get bored quickly
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Does the competency of individuals vary at different ages?
Yes, it varies at different ages
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Can we ask a newborn to do the same task a s a 5 year old?
no
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Can everyone do the same task at different ages? What does this mean for research?
Not always, this means it can be hard to see changes in terms of task performance.
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Can you get the same sort of information from individuals at different ages?
Not always, depends on situation.
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What is the definition of scientific methods?
The use of measurable and replicable techniques in framing hypotheses and collecting and analysing data to test a theory.
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What do we have to change about a study when working with a child/infant?
We need to adjust it to their needs and abilities.
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How are pilot studies useful in development psychology?
Allows us to see if there are any potential issues with our study.
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How is selecting a sample an issue in developmental psychology?
We need to decide which age groups are needed to find out the answer to our research question
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How is designing a study that taps into developmental processes in a meaningful way an issue in developmental psychology?
Because it isn't always easy to do
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How are ethical issues an issue in developmental psychology?
As we are dealing with minors they have more complex needs and we also need to be aware of normal ethical issues
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What is a cross-sectional study?
There are participants of different ages who are studied at the same time
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What is a longitudinal study?
When the same participants are studied over a period of time (At different ages)
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What is an advantage of the cross-sectional method?
Can show us how changes associated with age may unfold over development
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What is an issue with the cross-sectional method?
Doesn't tell use the causes of developmental change as we don't know how the children we at their youngest age
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What is a good thing about the longitudinal method?
Allow us to assess patterns of stability and changes over time, allows you to explore possible causes of any observed pattern, powerful method to evaluate impact of earlier evens on later behaviour
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What is a bad thing about the longitudinal method?
Expensive, need lots of researchers, people drop out, low generalisation as things change over time. takes time.
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What is the sequential method?
Combines features of the cross-sectional and longitudinal methods: testing samples of children of different ages at periodic intervals.
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What are the three research methods?
Observational, Experimental, Imaging
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What is the observational research method?
Behaviour is observed and recorded, and the researcher does not attempt to influence the individual's behaviour in any way
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What is the experimental research method?
The individual's environment is controlled in systematic ways, The aim is to identify which variables influence the behaviour under investigation
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What is the imaging method?
When you study the relationship between brain development and the development in perceptual, cognitive, social and motor skills.
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What do you need to consider when choosing a research method?
The research question, the participants, the researchers area of expertise and other things
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What two environments can observational methods happen in?
Natural and Artificial
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What is observation in a natural environment?
When you observe the participant in their natural environment i.e home/nursery.
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What is an advantage of observation in a natural environment?
High ecological validity
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What is ecological validity?
The extent to which research findings can be generalised to real life
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What is an issue with observing in the natural environment?
Participants are not likely to maintain spontaneous behaviour knowing that a stranger is observing, parents might make their children look good
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What is an issue with observing in the natural environment?
It does not show the underlying causes of development
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What is an issue with observing in the natural environment?
Their can be observer bias
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What is an issue with observing in the natural environment?
It is difficult to keep all the variables under control
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What is observer bias?
You might be influenced by your own thoughts/expectations rather than what is actually gone on.
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What is observation in an artifical environment?
Like in a laboratory, structured observation
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What is a pro of observation in an artifical environment?
There are controlled situation and variables
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What is a con of observation in an artifical environment?
Application in everyday life can only be inferred
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What is an example of a structured observation?
The strange situation
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What are experimental methods?
The researcher manipulates the environment to study if and how the individual (in this case the infant/child) is influenced by this change
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What is an issue with experimental methods?
Young children cannot press buttons
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What can we rely on in terms of experimental methods and development?
A baby's perceptual abilities
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What is the visual preference method/preferential looking task?
When you present infants with two different stimuli and measure whether they look consistently longer at one than the other.
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Do newborns prefer to look at things which they have seen before or new things?
New things
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Why is it important to switch images on different sides of the screen with the preferential looking task?
To eliminate the factor that babies might prefer looking at one side of the screen than the other.
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What is phase 1 of the habituation technique?
After a while the child gets bored of looking at a stimulus and then looks away.
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What is the observation/recording method of observing an infants behaviour?
When you look at how long an infant spends looking at an object.
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What is phase 2 of the habituation technique?
When the stimulus they got bored of is presented alongside with a novel stimulus
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What can you conclude from the habituation technique?
That if the infant looks longer at the novel stimulus, one can infer that the infant recognised the familiar stimulus and can discriminate between the two stimuli
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How is habitation a form of learning?
A decrease in strength of the response to a repeated stimulus means they have learnt that stimulus
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Who came up with the possible vs impossible event method (violation of expectations)?
Baillargeon et al 1985
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What does the possible vs impossible even t method test?
Surprise and their expectations
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What happens with violation of expectation paradigm?
Children are presented with two different scenarios to test their understanding of physical events, if they look longer at the impossible event then they are surprised
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What is the eye tracking method of looking at children?
It looks at infants gaze direction and eye movement to see what they are interested in.
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What do biological and Psychophysiological measures look at?
How the brain and nervous systems develop and what this can tell us about psychological development
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What are the three ways we can measure the central nervous system?
1) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 2) electroencephalogram (EEG), 3) functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)
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What are the three measures of the Peripheral Nervous System?
1) heart rate 2) Galvanic skin response 3) Muscle activity
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What is fMRI?
It uses strong magnetic fields to detect the level of of oxygenated blood present across the brain (called BOLD response), this indicates the brain areas involved in a particular task
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What is the advantages of an fMRI?
It has good Spatial resolution, it can reach deep subcortical areas of the brain
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What is the disadvantages of an fMRI?
It is expensive, participants are required to stay still, it is noisy and claustrophobic
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When are fMRI's used in development?
Children over 5 years or asleep infants.
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What does an EEG do?
Mesures the electrical activity on the scalp which arises from neurons that fire when the brain is active
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What do EEG's measure?
Event Related Potentials (ERPs) (brain activity time-locked to a particular stimulus or event)
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What is good about EEG's?
Good temporal resolution (in terms of milliseconds) - so good at when, cheep to maintain, relatively tolerable for young infants.
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What is bad about an EEG?
It does not have good spatial resolution, not suitable if you are interested in studying the specific brain regions activated.
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What is Near-infrared spectroscopy?
A relatively new method for detecting levels of oxy-haemoglobin in the brain -> the active areas in the brain. (where)
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How does the NIRS work?
The infrared light passes through the skull is refracted differently by oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. By measuring these colour schanges while the baby does/watches something we can see which part of the brain is active. Uses octods
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What is an advantage of the NIRS?
Provides spatial localisation, is silent, low-cost, non-intrusive, safe
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What is a disadvantage of the NIRS?
Not as good spatial as fMRI, not good at when something is happening (temporal)
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What do we need to consider in terms of characteristics in order to have a representative sample?
We need to choose individuals who possess nearly the same characteristics evidenced by the larger population in which we are interested; e.g. gender, ethnicity, social economic status e.t.c
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Why is it important to have a representative sample?
Because if not then our results might not extend to the larger population.
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What is a correlational design?
Tells you if thee is a relationship between two factors, but does not indicate casual relations.
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How can a correlation design be used in development?
To test whether some experiences of childhood are related to other experiences of childhood in a regular or systematic way.
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What is a positive correlation?
When both factors increase at the same time
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What is a negative correlation?
When one factor increases the other decreases
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What is a lab experiment?
It allows the researcher to control every possible influence except the one factor that is the object of interest. Manipulate factor to see if it causes a change.
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Where can lab experiments take place?
in a lab or natural enviornment
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Do children give consent?
No, aregivers do
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Why do psychologists need to consider how to present themes in research?
Because it might be unfamiliar, unsuitable or frightening.
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What is informed consent?
Agreement, based on a clear and full understanding of the purposes and procedures of a research study, to participate in that study. Parents or legal guardians must provide informed consent on the infants' behalf.
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What is debriefing?
Provide children/caregivers/teachers with information about the purpose or the findings of the research.
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What is withdrawal?
The caregiver/teacher has the right to withdraw from testing at any point in the experiment without penalty
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What is confidentiality?
All data should be annoymised, stored securely and confidentially should be respected
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What is the protection of participants?
Researchers have a responsibility towards their participants well=being
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Are there any exceptions to confidentiality when working with children?
Yes, if you discover abuse during the vist/ a child protection issue.
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Card 2

Front

Can you tell infants what to do in an experiment?

Back

No, they do not understand it

Card 3

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Can infants talk or explain themselves?

Back

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Card 4

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Why are infants difficult to study?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Does the competency of individuals vary at different ages?

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