Trying to preserve autocracy 1855- 1894

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  • Created by: amyclaire
  • Created on: 13-03-17 19:15

The Russian Autocracy in 1855

  • Sense of loyalty to local area, lack of national consciousness, geographical, social, intellectual, economic & religious divisions, reverence for Tsar, power of Orthohox church
  • Russia autocratic empire, 21 million square kms, head of which is Tsar, head of church, embodiement of God on Earth, strucure of church and state entwined
  • Main advisory bodies were Imperial Council, nobles picked to advise him, Council of Ministers, and the Senate (redundant by 55) 
  • Pronvincial nobility, lived away from capital, civil servants made up bureaucracy of paid noble officials, corrupt
  • Worlds largest army of 1.5 million conscripted serfs, forced into 25 years service and lived in a military colony, paid taxes (nobility exampt) 
  • Cossacks acted as personal bodyguard, prestigious military class, rode horses
  • Police state prevented freedom of speech press and travel, censorship, 'Third Secton' carried out raids, surveillence, imprisonment
  • Russian economy remained rural, inhospitable territory, poor communications, serf based economy, only managed to survive on produce grown and cotton industries eg weaving
  • Little internal demand, money not usual form of payment
  • Landowning elite obtained what they needed from serfs, no investment opportunities, many forced into debt
  • Absence of coherant middle class, small intelligentsia eg doctors and lawyers
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Crimean War 1853- 56

  • Sultan struggled to control Christians, Tsar Nicholas seized opportunity to increase Russian influence posed as protector of Slav and Christians, 1853 sent army to Moldavia and Wallachia, Turks declared war
  • Russians stronger, sunk squadron, British and French interevened in defence of Turkey
  • Outbreak of cholera- large death toll
  • Poor Russian tech, transport and leadership, defeated in 1854
  • Revealed inadequacies, disastrous, distrupted trade, peasant uprisings, intelligentsia cries for change
  • Treaty of Paris 1856 prevented Russian warships from using Black Sea in times of peace- humiliating 
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Alexander 2 the 'Tsar Reformer'

  • Emancipation of 51 million serfs in 1861, liberal, humanitarian, path to reform, however state directed manipulation of society to strengthen stability, government driven, maintain autocracy, Milyutin brothers favoured reform, helped draft Emancipation Edict terms
  • Increased peasant uprisings since 1840s due to landowners pushing peasants to produce more and protest against conscription during Crimean War
  • Only a free population would provide labour needed for military improvement, incentive to work, grain surplus, export of grain, investment in industry, peasants to towns
  • Released poltiical prisoners and pardoned those involved in plot to assassinate father, relaxed censorship, 
  • 1858-58- toured trying to win support of nobles for emancipation
  • 1861 Emancipation Edict privately owned serfs, freedom and allotment of land, landowners government compensation, redemption payments 49 years for land and remained within their mir, 2 year temporary obligation period, allocations worked out
  • 1862- state serf freedom, 1863- volosts ran own courts, until 1881 15% obligated to landlords when redemption made compulsory 
  • Kulaks bought up extra land, produced surplus grain for export, others obtained passport to leave mir, found work in cities, some landowners got out of debt using compensation
  • Peasants felt cheated- land allocations unfair, redemption burden, travel restrictions, violence towards kulaks, landowner resent loss of influence
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Other domestic reforms

Military Reforms 1874- 75- Milyutin- conscription compulsory from age 21, reduced from 25 to 15 years in service, 10 years reserves, punishments less severe, military colonies abandoned, medical care, modern weaponry, colleges for training, literacy improves- But officer class aristocratic, supply and leadership problems, army struggled to win war against Turkey, defeated by Japan and Germany later on 

Judiciary reforms 1864- system of local, provincial and national courts, innocent until proven guilty, could employ lawyer, criminal cases heard before barrister and jury, judges improved training and pay, justices of the peace elected every 3 years, independent, opened to public and could be freely reported, less corrupt and more fair- But people flocked to courts, intelligentsia could criticise regime, juries acquitted guilty as sympathised with their plight, ecclesiastical and miliary courts exluded from reform, peasants in volosts treated differently from those of higher status

Educaiton reforms 1863-64- Golovnin- universities could govern themselves, schooling responsibilty to zemstva rather than church, education extended, modern schools, could progress to Uni, schools open to all eg women But independece of Unis- radical thinkers

Censorship reform 1858-70- relaxation, comment of gov policy, growth of books etc on sale

Half hearted attempts eliminate corruption in church, economic liberalisation (Reutern) 

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The autocracy of Alexander 2nd and 3rd

1866- attempted assassination on Tsar, death of son, wife suffered TB- more aloof Tsar, reactionaries feared spread of Western ideas thought ethinic minorites diluted Russian strength

Tolstoy new Education Minister-reduced powers of zemstva over education church regained authority, traditional Uni curriculum, censorship tightened

Shulalov strengthened police, stepped up persecution of minorities, Pahlen ensured judiciary made example of political agitators, 'show' trials deterring others from revolutionary activity

Loris Melikov Consitituion 1881- Minister for Internal Affairs- released political prisoners, relaxed censorship, lifted zemzstva restrictions, Third Section abolished but Okhrana created, recommended the inclusion of elected representatives of nobility, zemstva, and town governments

1881- members of People's Will assassinate Tsar

Alexander 3rd comes to power- tutored by Pobedonostev, public hanging of consipirators in father's assassination, 1881 Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy, Law of Exceptional Measures- if necessary, commandor in chief could take control of a locality using military police courts and powers of imprisonment

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Changes in local government/ policing/ judicial sy

Pobedonostev- absolutism, nationalism, anti Semitism

New state appointed office of Land Captain created 1889, power to override elections and to disregard zemstvo decisions, law enforcement, could overturn court judgements, 1890 reduced peasants vote for zemstva, and place under government control, 1892, electorate reduced to owners of proprty over certain value

Okhrana- von Plehve 1881-84, autocratic principles, police increased, spies recruited, intercepted and read mail, torture, executionms, 1882 statute on police surveillance, any area of empire could be deemed an area of subversion, agents could search, imprison

Judicial system- Alexander 2nds reforms partially reversed, 1887 Ministry granted powers to hold closed court sessions, 1887 qualifications needed by jurors raised, volosts courts put under direct jurisdiction of Land Captains and judges

Education- appointments of chancellors deans and professors subject to approval of Education Ministry based on moral religious and patriotic orientation (not academic grounds) supervised Uni life, closed for women, primary education limit for lower classes and under control of church, only 21% of population literate in 1897, prevented economic modernisation and failed to prevent illegal political movements

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Changes in censorship and impact of reforms

Censorship- 1882 committee by Tolstoy allowed newspapers to be closed down and life bans on editors & publishers, censors more active, literary publications to be approved, extended to theatre art and culture where Russification was enforced

Impact of counter reform- some positive change, in 1881 law redueced redemption fees payable, May 1885 poll tax abolished and inheritance tax shifted burden away from lower classes, establishment of Peasant's Land Bank in 1883

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Russification

Alexander 2nd- Problems posed by ethnic minorities- multi national Empire over 100 different ethnic groups, development of national ideology provoked ethnic groups to assert their identities, 1830  polish nationalism surfacing and brought rebellion- Russians determined to assert superiority 

1863- further Polish rebellion (underground National Government for Poland) using guerilla warfare soundly crushed in 1864, Alexander 2nd used concessions not persecution to keep control, eg Latvians allowed to revert to Lutheranism rather than Orthodoxy, allowed Finns own parliament or 'diet' to maintain good relations, ministers increasingly keen to reinforce tsarist regime, 1876 prohibition on use of Ukranian language in publications and performances

Alexander 3rd-         encouraged by Pobedonostev, destruction of non Russian cultures, Finland's diet's political influence weakened, Russian language demanded, Russian coinage replaced currency, Polish National Bank closed in 1885, teaching in Russian, Baltic Germans (loyal) had Russian language enforced, in Ukraine conscripts from national areas dispersed to prevent national groupings, uprisings mercilessly suppressed, eg in Georgia 1892, adherance to Orthodox church, laws benefitted those of Orthodox faith, forced mass baptisms in Asia, 1883 members of non Orthodox churches unable to build new places of worship or wear relgious dress, attempts to convert from Orthodoxy punishable by exile

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Results of Russification

1882- 332 cases of mass disturbance in 61 or Russia's 92 provinces and districts, swiftly curbed, military employed in 51 cases, resentment among wealthy Finns, Baltic Germans and Poles, petitioned for more liberties, secret publication of local language books, ethnic schools survived

Supporters of Russification believed acting for greater good, unity needed, but was a misguided policy which intensified national feeling among non Russians, drove wealthier citizens to emigrate  and persuaded others to join opposition groups

Anti Semitism- 5 million Jews within Russian Empire, since 1736 most confined to Pale of Settlement, 

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Jewish Pogroms 1881- 84

April 1881 Ukraine- business competitions for lucrative railway contracts, Okrhana used link with assassination to stir up trouble, governing authorities did not curb violence, 'Holy League' coordinated early attacks (banned 1882), property was burnt, businesses destroyed, ****, murder, May Laws 1882, forbidden from settling outside cities, Jews forbidden to do business on Sundays etc, condemned Jews to living in ghettoes, seperate decree 1882 decreased number of Jewish doctors premitted in army

Many Jews left the country, foreign Jews began to be deported from Russia, 1890 foreign Jews began to be deported along with Russian Jews who had settled outside the Pale, 1891-92 10000 Jewish artisans expelled from Moscow, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich Governor General 1892 forced 20000 Jews from city during Passover & closed down synagogue 

Jews driven towards revolutionary groups eg Marxist socialist organisations

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Growth of opposition to tsarist rule

Initial relaxation in censorship & education encouraged spread of radical lit & increased independtly minded students, zemstva and duma platform to challenge policies, repressive atmosphere reinforced demands for change- intelligentsia, student radicals, socialist groups

Moderate liberal opposition- benefit of education, small group, Westernisers wanted to catch up with West eg writer Turgenev, Slavophiles favoured Russian culture & heritage eg peasant society & Orthodoxy path to future eg Tolstoy

Zemstva home for Westernising liberal opposition, though no national influence, demanded a central body to coordinate regional councils, Tsar stood against proposal, restriction of zemstvo powers by Alexander 3rd in 1889-1890 disappointed liberals, 1891-92 famine left zemstva responsible for relief work, tsarist system needed to change

Radical opposition- young, 1862 fires destroyed 2000 shops, calls for reform

Radical thinkers- Herzen editor of radical journal The Bell smuggled into Russia, advocated new peasant based social structure, Bakunin thought private ownership replaced by collective ownership, income based on number of hours worked, translated Marx's Communist Manifesto & Das Kapital, Bakunin and Nechaev wrote Catechism of Revolutionary smuggled into Russia, opponents of autocracy should be merciless in pursuit of revolution, returned to Russia in 1871 only to flee again after murder of student who disagreed wih him

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Opposition

Tchaikovsky Circle- 1868-69- literary society, revolutionary lit, no more than 100 people, sought social not political revolution, began organising workers  1872 to send to work among peasants

Narodniks (Populists)- 'going to the people'- 1874 2000 young to travel to countryside to persuade peasantry future depended on peasant commune, exploit resentment since Emancipation about lack of land and tax burden, tried dressing and talking like peasants, but met with hostility, ignorance & loyalty to Tsar, reported to authorities, 1600 arrested, 1876 no more succesful, show trials 1877-78 (Romas set up cooperative store selling veg, suspicious of cheap prices, assistant brutally murdered, body scattered along bank of river, shop blown up, forced to flee) BUT took opposition away from underground to country

Land and Liberty- 1877, continued Populist tradition, less obtrusive, public assassinations, elicitied public sympathy, talks with zemstva for constitutional reform, government failed to respond

1879 split into Black Repartition (Plekhanov) wanted to share black soil provinces of Russia among peasants, peaceful, developed ties with students & published radical materials to stimulate social change, weakened by 1880-81 arrests

& The People's Will (Mikhailov) planted a spy in Tsar's Third Section, to keep informed & avoid arrest, bigger group, violent methods, assassinating gov officials, 1879 declared Tsar had to be removed, offered to withdraw threat if constiution offered which it was not, 1881 Tsar Alexander 2nd assassinated

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Opposition

Tchaikovsky Circle- 1868-69- literary society, revolutionary lit, no more than 100 people, sought social not political revolution, began organising workers  1872 to send to work among peasants

Narodniks (Populists)- 'going to the people'- 1874 2000 young to travel to countryside to persuade peasantry future depended on peasant commune, exploit resentment since Emancipation about lack of land and tax burden, tried dressing and talking like peasants, but met with hostility, ignorance & loyalty to Tsar, reported to authorities, 1600 arrested, 1876 no more succesful, show trials 1877-78 (Romas set up cooperative store selling veg, suspicious of cheap prices, assistant brutally murdered, body scattered along bank of river, shop blown up, forced to flee) BUT took opposition away from underground to country

Land and Liberty- 1877, continued Populist tradition, less obtrusive, public assassinations, elicitied public sympathy, talks with zemstva for constitutional reform, government failed to respond

1879 split into Black Repartition (Plekhanov) wanted to share black soil provinces of Russia among peasants, peaceful, developed ties with students & published radical materials to stimulate social change, weakened by 1880-81 arrests

& The People's Will (Mikhailov) planted a spy in Tsar's Third Section, to keep informed & avoid arrest, bigger group, violent methods, assassinating gov officials, 1879 declared Tsar had to be removed, offered to withdraw threat if constiution offered which it was not, 1881 Tsar Alexander 2nd assassinated

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Tsarist Reaction & radical opposition after 1881

Security stepped up, new Tsar cautious, ended Populist movement, self education circles translating writings of foreign socalists continued underground, Plekhanov established Emancipation of Labour group in 1883 from Switzerland, arranged for Marxist tracts to be smuggled into Russia & demonstrated Marxism applicable to Russia, limited impact, German contact arrested, but two stage revolutionary strategy of Plekhanov vital in advancing Marxism

1890s- opposition little chance of success due to Tsarist repression, industrialisation sped up, trade unions & Marxist discussion circles developed, small beginnings would have long term importance

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Economic Developments

Economic change- driven by state, 1862-78 von Reutern reforms to provide funds for industrial growth, treasury reformed, tax farming abolished, more indirect taxation, state bank established 1860, municipal banks 1862, savings bank 1869, reduction of import duties encouraged trade 1863,  subsidies for entrepreneurs to develop railways, foreign investment encouraged, annual  dividend, mining in donets coalfield- all encouraged enterprise, railway network saw expansion, annual average wage growth 6%, textiles dominant, oil extraction began Caspian Sea port 1871, but Russia’s economy remained comparatively weak, third of government expenditure repayment of debts, rouble wild variations in value, 66% of gov revenue from indirect taxation- peasants poor & domestic market small, 1878 tariffs raised

Industrial take off- Vyshnegradsky 1887 import tariff 30% boosted home production helped iron industry in Southern Russia, negotiated loans eg French 1888, increased indirect taxes, mounted a drive to swell grain exports, 1892- surplus budget, but at expense of peasants who paid taxes & saw grain requisitioned, ‘We ourselves should not eat but we shall export’ 1891-92 bad harvests- famine thousands dead

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Economic Developments

Witte- continue with tariffs, taxation, forced exports to generate capital, 1880 foreign investment 98 million roubles,  1895 280, went into mining, encouraged foreign engineers to oversee industrial developments, expansion of railway network, by 1890 huge expansion, 60% owned by state, world’s 4th largest industrial economy 1897, exports, foreign trade

Agricultural practice same after emancipation, but less ploughland, average peasant less than 4 hectares, high taxes, grain requisitions, redemption payments & traditional farming practices hampered change, low yields, Peasants Land Banks held funds of land to assist peasants who wished to acquire land, Nobles Land Banks helped Nobles with legal costs in land transfer & land improvement schemes, low interest rates, helped increase peasant ownership (1887-1905 26 million hectares into peasant hands) but helped prop up inefficient farms, loans often increased debts, kulak class increased agricultural production, but famine showed too little land to become prosperous

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Social Developments

Social divisions- Landed Elite- small, nobles, landholdings had declined as sold to pay off debts eg mortgages, others abandoned farming, in 1882 more than 700 nobles owned their own businesses in Moscow, 2500 in commerce/ transport/ industry, zemstvo an option, former serf owners retained wealth, society stratified

Middle class- began to grow due to expansion, bankers etc needed but added up to no more than half a million 1897, railway contracts & loans to set up factories opportunities for enterprising

Urban working class- growth, but no more than 2% of population, peasants sold up & left countryside to join migrant group building railways, 1864 1/3 inhabitants of St Petersburg peasants by birth, poor conditions, 1882-90 legislation, regulation of child labour, reduction working hours, reduction in payment in goods and services, but contributed very little, 1886-1894 33 strikes

Peasantry- Kulaks bought up land, bought grain from poorer & selling it back at inflated price in spring, poorest find life harsher, 1880s 2/3 former serfs in Tambov region unable to feed household without falling into debt, areas of former state peasants better off as more land granted, high mortality rates than any other European country, 27 life expectancy men 29 women (45 in England)- economic change failed to improve lives of peasantry, affected for worse Cultural influence of Church- 70% of population Orthodox Church, Tsar divine right to rule, by 1800s Church admin moved to Holy Synod and Tsar more secular role, Orthodoxy beneficial as means of control, peasant huts held icon, priests expected to keep stats & root out opposition, encouraged to pass on statements in Holy Confessions to secular authorities, 1868 reforms to improve education of priests, Alexander 3rd gave church more control over primary education, strict censorship controls, offence to convert to another faith, other churches eg Old Believers persecuted, 8500 Muslims converted to Orthodoxy in ALexnader 3rds reign

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