The Cold War - Grace Silverstone

~The Origins of the Cold War 1941-58~

Agreements:

• Britain + the USA agreed to open up a 2nd front by invading France (May 1944)
• Soviet Union was to wage a war against Japan following Germany's defeat
• A UN organisation was to be set up post-war
• An area of eastern Poland was to be added to the Soviet Union + the borders of Poland were to be along the Oder + Neisse rivers

Disagreements:

• Roosevelt tended to side with Stalin as he was keen to improve relations
• Churchill's idea of an Allied invasion through the Balkans (preventing the Red Army from taking over all of eastern Europe) was rejected

Agreements:

• To divide Germany + Berlin into 4 zones: UK, USA, French, + Soviet
• To hunt down + try Nazi war criminals in an international court of justice
• The Soviet Union could enter war with Japan following Germany's surrender
• To allow liberated countries to have free elections to choose a government
• To join the UN organisation to maintain peace following WW2
• That eastern Europe would be a Soviet 'Sphere of Influence'

Disagreements:

• Germany's reparations -  Stalin wanted a much higher figure than Roosevelt/Churchill
• Stalin wanted the Polish/German border to be further to the West than the western allies 
• Stalin wanted a communist Polish government (so he could have protection from Germany)
• The Western Powers feared this would be soviet-controlled + persuaded Stalin to allow free elections in Poland

Change in relations:

• Soviets didn't remove their military presence from the countries they liberated
• Stalin set up a communist gov. in Poland, insisting that his control of eastern Europe was a defense measure against future attacks
• Stalin refused to cut down his army, despite demilitarisation in the West
• Truman replaced Roosevelt following his death in April 1945. Truman distrusted Stalin + was convinced he was trying to take over Europe
• Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister halfway through the conference
• The USA successfully tested an atomic bomb + Stalin was furious he hadn't been consulted about it before Truman announced it at the conference

Agreements:

• Germany to be divided into four zones as previosly agreed
• Germany to be demilitarised
• Democracy to be re-established in Germany e.g.: free elections, freedom of speech + press etc
• Nazi Party banned, Nazis were removed from important positions + leading Nazis put on trial at Nuremburg in 1946
• Germany to pay reparations in equipment + materials (mainly to the Soviets who suffered the most)
• Full participation in the UN organisation
• Poland's frontier to be moved westwards to the Oder + Neisse rivers

Disagreements:

• Stalin wanted to economically cripple Germany, Truman saw a revived Germany as a barrier to future Soviet expansion + didn't want a repeat of the end of WW1
• Truman wanted free elections in Soviet eastern Europe, Stalin reused to submit to US pressure + believed he should have his 'Sphere of Influence'

Churchill's Iron Curtain speech:

• In March 1946, Churchill made a speech in Fulton, USA that an 'Iron Curtain' had descended
• Iron Curtain - an imaginary line dividing the communist East from the capitalist west in Europe

The Long Telegram:

• Warned Truman of the Soviet Union's determination to expand
• Suggested there was no chance of a "permanent happy coexsistence" between the rivalling ideologies

The Novikov Telegram:

• Telegram to Stalin indicating US dominance in retaliation to the Long Telegram

~All contributed to increased tensions between the allies~

Hungary:

• 1945 - the largest party was the Smallholder’s gaining around 50% of the vote at August elections
• 1947 - Communist party seized control of the police + arrested the Smallholder’s leader, Bela Kovacs + Imre Nagy, the PM, was forced to resign
• 1947 general elections – communists took over the gov. + banned all other parties

Poland:

• June 1945 – coalition gov. of several parties set up
• January 1947 – elections rigged to ensure the election of a communist gov.
• Leader of the main opposition, Stanislaw Milokajcyk fled to London

Czechoslovakia:

• Communist already had great support here
• By 1947, they were the largest party in the coalition gov. + controlled the police/armed forces
• 1948 - communists with the aid of the Soviets siezed control
• Non - communists arrested + foreign secretary, Jan Masaryk, murdered
• Rigged elections brought communist victory + all other parties were banned

Yugoslavia:

• Communist resistance fought bravely in WW2 against Germany
• The leader, Marshal Tito was elected president
• Tito had no intention of taking Stalin's orders, so it was expelled from Cominform + other countries applied economic sanctions
• Tito accepted aid from the West, challenging Stalin further

Bulgaria:

• Late 1944 - communist-dominated gov. set up
• November 1945 - communists won rigged elections+ banned all other parties

Romania:

• Early 1945 - coalition gov. set up + in January, communists encouraged by Stalin partook in demonstrations disrupting the gov.
• March 1945 - Soviet army intervened + disarmed Romania's army, forced the king to appoint a communist-dominated gov. ruled by Petru Groza
• November 1946 - communists gained 80% of the vote in elections
• 1947 - communists abolished the monarchy

Containment - American policy aimed at preventing the spread of Communism

Greece's civil war (began 1944):

• Britain had been helping the royalist gov. to fight communist forces
• 40,000 British troops were Stationed in Greece + money was given to the Greek + Turkish govs
• By early 1947, the USA stepped in (as Britain couldn't afford to support Greece anymore), fearing the countries would come under Soviet influence

~Marked a new era in US attitude to world politics as it had previously followed a policy of isolationism~

Truman Doctrine - March 1947:

• The policy that the USA would support nations in danger of communist takeover with economic + military aid
• Consequences: Stalin set up Cominform, Truman publicly stated the world was divided between the free (non - communist) and unfree (communist)

Marshall Plan - June 1947:

• Was a programme of aid to help western Europe to reequip its factories + revive agriculture/trade
• $12.5 billion given in aid to western countries
• The USA believed prosperous countries would resist the spread of Communism
• Consequences: Europe became more firmly divided between East + West, Stalin withdrew from discussions due to trust issues and an unwillingness to show USSR weakness (thought the plan would weaken his hold on eastern Europe), and he prevented interested European countries from getting involved e.g.: Czech/Poland

Cominform - 1947:

• Enabled the USSR to coordinate communist parties throughout Europe
• USSR's response to the Truman Doctrine
• Was introduced to ensure that eastern European states followed Soviet aims in foreign policy, to introduce USSR economic policies e.g.: collectivisation of agriculture/state control of industry + to purge any members disageeing 

Comecon - 1949:

• Supposed to be a means of financial support to eastern European countries from the Soviet Union
• In reality was used for: controlling these state's economies, giving the USSR access to their resources + encouraging economic specialisation within the Soviet bloc (e.g.: Czech encouraged to concentrate on heavy industry + Romania, Hungary + Bulgaria specialised in production of raw materials + food)
• USSR's response to the Marshall Plan

Blockade - the situation in which a country/place is surrounded by soldiers/ships to stop people/goods from going in or out

Short term causes:

• March - USSR representitives walked out of the Allied Control Commission (a body initially set up to run Hungary by the Allies, that now administered Germany) complaining that western attitudes made it unworkable
• April - as the Allied zones were included in the Marshall Plan, USSR troops began to hold up + search road + rail traffic entering West Berlin
• June - the western powers announced plans to create a West German State + introduced a new currency (Western Deutschmark) for their zones + West Berlin
• The USSR retaliated by setting up its own currency (Otsmark) in the Soviet zone + East Berlin
• 24th June - Stalin accused the West of interfering with the Soviet zone + cut off road, rail + canal traffic in an attempt to starve West Berlin. Stalin was trying to force the Allies to pull out of their sectors + abandon plans for separate developments in their German zones. This was the start of the Berlin Blockade

~Was the 1st international crisis of the Cold War + almost started another war~

Long term causes:

• The West wanted to catalyse Germany's economic recovery (facing food shortages + fuel shortages following WW2) but the USSR wanted to keep Germany weak + refused to allow its zone to trade with the other 3 as it wanted to secure itself from future attacks
• The USSR ensured that the minority communist group took control of their eastern zone. However, they were unsuccessful in securing communist control of the Berlin city council as the socialist majority, supported by the western powers, successfully resisted
• Berlin was in the heart of Soviet-controlled East Germany + the western Allies could access their sectors by road, rail, canal + air. But, Stalin didn't want the Allies in Berlin + didn't want people in the East to witness the affluent capitalist way of life. The western Allies wanted to remain in Berlin to monitor Soviet activity

The Berlin Airlift:

• If the Allies atttempted to ram the road or railway blocks, Stalin would see it as an act of war
• So, instead, in June 1948, Allies air lifted supplies
• The USSR never shot down any planes as it would have started a war
• For 10 months, western Berlin was supplied with an average of 4,000 tonnes of supplies everyday, + there was a total of around 275,000 flights in total.
• 12th May 1949 - Stalin called off the blockade

What were the consequences?

• Confirmed the divisions of Germany + Berlin. A few days after it was called off, the western Allies announced their states would join the FRG (Federal Republic of Germany). Stalin responded with the formation of the GDR (German Democratic Republic) in October 1949
• Increased the East-West rivalry. Truman saw it as a success as West Berlin had survived + stood up to the USSR. For Stalin it was a defeat + humiliation, although this wasn't what the Soviets were led to believe
• The formation of NATO

~Berlin was crucial to the containment of communism~

NATO - April 1949:

• Western European states were no match for the USSR + needed the formal support of the USA
• USA used this fear to create an alliance to defend the western world - NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) - consisting of 12 countries

Consequences:

• USA was now committed to the defence of western Europe
• Stalin didn't belive it was defence + thought it was aimed at the USSR
• Intensified the arms race between the superpowers + development of even more powerful WMD. The percieved aim was to be able to make the '1st strike' preventing the other from firing back

Consequences, The Warsaw Pact - 1955:

• Within 6 years, the USSR set up the Warsaw Pact - a military treaty + association between the USSR + its European satellite states
• The USA set up its own missile bases in western Europe inc. the UK 

~Print off timeline for this~

Background:

• USSR invaded Hungary in September 1944 + ignored the elections in 1945 by establishing a coalition gov. containing Communist Party members
• The communists also controlled the security police + in February 1947, arrested leaders of the opposition (Smallholder's) + others fled due to Soviet pressure
• Rakosi emerged from the Communist Party to lead Hungary + it became a dictatorship + member of Cominform
• Stalin died in 1953 + was replaced by malenkov + there was no real change in USSR policy
• Khrushchev became leader in 1955 + quickly denounced Stalin's policies (de-stalinisation). He believed the 2 superpowers could co-exist peacefully
• In 1956, Khrushchev replaced Rakosi with Erno Gero

Causes of the Hungarian Uprising:

• Rakosi used terror + brutality to keep control, killing 2,000+/- people + imprisoning 200,000 political opponents using the AVH (secret police)
• The Hungarians hated Russian Communism
• Religious teaching in schools was attacked + removed from the educational system + Cardinal Mindszenty (leader of Hungarian Catholic Church) was imprisoned for life
• Hungarian economy was controlled through Comecon, preventing Hungary trading with western Europe + recieving Marshall aid. Hungary was forced to trade with the USSR, recieving unfair prices for exports. The Five Year Plan focused on heavy industry which was unsuitable for Hungary. Living standards fell.

The Hungarian Uprising:

• 23rd October - in Budapest, students demonstrated, demanding free elections + press, + a withdrawal of USSR troops
• Smashed a statue of Stalin + attacked the AVH + USSR soldiers
• Russian troops + tanks were sent in + on October 25th, they killed 12 people + injured 100+
• Gero was forced to resign + was replaced by Nagy
• Hungarian public thought the US would help (US secretary of state - John Dulles said "you can count on us") but Eisenhower was cautious to intervene as elections were forthcoming 

Nagy & Khrushchev:

• 30th October - Nagy released some political prisoners inc. Cardinal Mindszenty
• Nagy proposed several reforms: free elections, trade unions, speech, worship + press; to develop trade links with the West, end -one party systems; for Hungary to become a neutral state + he intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact + ask the UN for support
• Khrushchev was anxious not to be seen as weak by other members of the Warsaw Pact, so on the 4th November, 200,000 USSR troops + 6,000 tanks invaded Hungary

Why did the USSR invade Hungary?

• Fear of loss of control of eastern Europe
• To set an example to the rest of eastern Europe
• Khrushchev believed the USA + UN were preoccupied by the Suez crisis
• Pressure from Mao Zedong + China to protect Commnism from the West
• Khrushchev needed to stamp his authority on the USSR
• US presidential elections
• Khrushchev refused to accept the idea of Hungary leaving the Warsaw Pact as it would leave a gap in the USSR's buffer zone with Western Europe

The Invasion:

• The USSR army captured airports, bridges + key road junctions but the Hungarians fought using guerrila tactics
• However, the rebels were no match for the occupying Soviet forces
• Rebels could communicate with the West by radio + broadcasted impassioned pleas for help
• A ceasefire was arrananged for 10th November
• However, sporadic fighting continued until mid 1957

Nagy:

• Hid in the Yugoslav embassy during the fighting until Janos Kadar (Soviet-backed new leader of Hungary) offered him a safe passage out of the country
• Kadar arrested Nagy, + he was taken to Romania where he was hanged in 1958

Results:

• Soviets easily defeated the Hungarian rebels
• 20,000 Hungarian deaths
• 7,000 Soviet deaths
• Around 200,000 Hungarians fled during the uprising, many becoming political refugees

International reactions:

• The West couldn't do much + staged demonstrations in support of Hungarian protestors (Hungary was too far away for military intervention + there was the threat of nuclear war)
• The Suez crisis meant it was hard for the West to criticise simiar actions from the USSR in Hungary
• Many Americans sympathised e.g.: Ed Sullivan - US TV presenter - asked viewers to send aid to Hungarian refugees + this appeal raised $6 million

~Cold War Crises 1958-70~

Why might there be problems in Berlin?

• Division of Berlin 1945
• Berlin Blockade + Airlift 1948-9
• Khrushchev's concerns: West Germany joining NATO, the European Economic Community (ECC), + it was becoming economically strong + growing stronger. Fear of German invasion in the USSR.

What happened before 1961?

Khrushchev attempted to persuade the Allies to voluntarily leave West Berlin for several reasons:

• West Berlin was an area of Capitalist prosperity + a symbol of success of western Europe within Communist territory
• It claimed that the western Allies used it as a base for espionage + that they needed to control access to Berlin to combat this

The Refugee Problem 1949-61:

• 4+/- million East Germans fled to the West through Berlin due to dissatisfaction with economic + politcal conditions
• Forced collectivisation of agriculture + end of private trading weren't popular
• Was shortages of consmer goods which could be bought in West Berlin cheaply
• Brain drain threatened to engender the economic collapse of Germany
• In 1961, over 20,000 people moved/month

Khrushchev's Berlin Ulitimatum 1958:

• Khrushchev accused the Allies of breaking the Potsdam Agreement + told them to leave Berlin, suggesting it should be a 'neutral' city
• Eisenhower didn't want war over Berlin, + so negotiated seemingly successfully with Khrushchev in his US visit in 1959

Paris Summit 1960:

• 14th May, Khrushvhev + Eisenhower due to meet in Paris, but 9 days before the summit was due to open, the USSR announced it had shot down a US U-2 spy plane near Sverdlovsk
• The pilot was put on trial + Khrushchev demanded a US apology + wanted all flights to stop
• Eisenhower stopped flights, but didn't apologise --> bitter exchanges at a pleliminary meeting (which Khushchev stormed out of), a cancelled USSR visit for Eisenhower + the summit was cancelled

Vienna Summit 1961:

• Khrushchev fixed another summit conference with JFK + felt he could use his experience to push him around. But, JFK had re-asserted the Truman Doctrine in his Inaugaration Speech (20th Jan 1961), which Khrushchev failed to notice
• Khrushchev again demanded that the western forces should leave West Berlin + said he would make a treaty with East Germany to end occupational rights inc. access to Berlin
• JFK refused to withdraw western forces + increased US defence spending by $3.5 billion the following month. July, Khrushchev announced the USSR defence budget would be increased by > 30%

Construction of the wall:

• 1961 - differences over Berlin worsened
• August 13th, Khrushchev closed the East/West Berlin border. Streets on the border torn up + a 43km barbed wire entanglement was erected
• Allies didn't prevent this
• A new barrier was erected within the East Berlin boundary
• Within a few days, construction began on the wall, chain fences + minefields
• Area was cleared so East German guards could shoot Germans attempting to cross to West Berlin
• Eventually, East German officials replaced the wall with a much stronger wall (3.6m x 1.2m)
• The area beyond the wall was nearly impossible to get across due to patrolling soldiers, dogs, flood lights and trip-wire machine guns

Germany:

• Escape became v. difficult
• Some managed to defect by tunneling, swimming + jumping out of windows
• Many died attempting to cross it
• Families were split up (some lived in the East, some in the West)
• Travel restrictives made it v. difficult to visit relatives
• Germans felt let down as the USSR had broken the 1949 agreement on Berlin's management + Kennedy did nothing

USSR:

• Khrushchev felt he had beaten Kennedy + was prepared for the next chance to out-manoeuvere his rival. The flow of refugees stopped + the economic crisis in East Germany slowly ended
• The US disputed the right of USSR troops to patrol + guard the wall's checkpoints + check US officials' passports who wanted to get through
• The US stationed their own troops/tanks on the Western side of the checkpoints

What was the significance of Cuba?

• It's 90 miles from Miami in Florida, USA
• Before 1959, the US had a naval base and many troops stationed there
• The US controlled industry, railways + electricty production + had invested large sums of money into it
• However, the Cuban people thougt the gov, led by unpopular dictator General Batista, was corrupt

What happened in 1959 in Cuba?

• Cuban Revolution led by anti-capitalist Fidel Castro (he killed/exiled political opponents + won over the maj. of the Cuban people)
• He was seen as a threat to US containment
• Castro wanted greater independence from the USA + took control of US property, so the USA banned sugar imports from Cuba (threatening to bankrupt the Cuban economy) + refused to ackowledge his gov.
• Khrushchev wanted him as an ally close to the US, so he bought the Cuban sugar + sent Castro weapons. Castro became communist.

• Jan, following Soviet intervention with Castro in 1960, the USA ended diplomatic relations with Cuba

The Bay of Pigs:

• April 1961, just after he was installed as President of the USA, JFK approved a plan to invade Cuba and overthrow communism
• The CIA landed 1,400 Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs on the southern coast of Cuba with the aim of provoking an anti-communist uprising
• They were met by 20,000 heavily armed Cuban troops and all were captured/killed

Why did it fail?

• CIA was convinced that when the exiles landed, the Cuban people would help remove Castro, + failed to understand that he was popular.
• Castro was aware that the invasion was imminent
• Cuban ground forces = 20,000 + were superior in leadership, arms + organisation
• La Brigada's supply of ships were sunk by Cuban planes

Significance:

• Castro (who had been losing support due to Cuba's severe economic situation) became stronger due to the failure, as the threat from the USA united the Cuban people
• The USA lost support in the rest of Latin America + it was an embarassment for JFK
• It pushed Castro closer to the USSR
• End of 1961, USSR military advisers + combat units were stationed in Cuba, marking the beginning of the spread of communism in Latin America

Background:

• Following the Bay of Pigs, USSR arms flooded Cuba + by July 1962, Cuba had the best-equipped army in Latin America
• September 1962, Cuba had 000's of USSR missiles, tanks + jets, + 5,000+ USSR to maintain weapons

Cuba: a nuclear missile base?

• USA thought the USSR wouldn't dare put a nuclear missile base that close to the US coastline
• Khrushchev claimed any weapons sent were to defend Cuba + weren't offensive, unlike US missiles in Turkey
• 14th Oct 1962, US spy planes took photos indicating nuclear missile bases had already been built + some were in the process of being built (which would be operational by Nov)
• Short range missiles could reach Florida/New Orleans + long range missiles could reach San Fransisco

• 22nd - JFK announced a blockade and called on the USSR to withdraw its missiles
• 23rd - JFK recieved a letter from Khrushchev saying that USSR ships wouldn't observe the blockade + didn't admit to the presence of nuclear missiles on Cuba
• 24th - the Blockade began. USSR ships + a sub approached the blockade zone but stopped + turned around at 10.32am
• 25th - Intensive arial photos revealed that work on the missile bases in Cuba was proceding rapidly despite the ships turning around
• 26th - JFK recieved a long personal letter from Khrushchev in which he claimed that the missiles on Cuba were purely defensive, but if the US promised not to attack Cuba + lifted the blockade, they would remove the missile sites
• 27th (morning) - Khrushchev sent 2nd letter, adding the term of US removal of missile bases from Italy + Turkey.  US U-2 plane shot down over Cuba + pilot killed. JFK advised to launch an immediate attack on Cuba
• 27th (afternoon) - JFK decided to delay attack. He ignored Khrushchev's 2nd letter but accepted his terms from the 26th + said an attack would follow if the USSR didn't withdraw
• 28th - Khrushchev replied saying that they would crate + return the arms to the USSR

• JFK improved in popularity as the Turkey deals weren't made public
• Relations improved - Detente e.g:
  • Limited Test Ban Treaty (Aug 1963) - USA + USSR agreed to stop testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere
  • Outer Space Treaty (1968) - Superpowers, Britain + others promised to use outer space for peaceful purposes + not to place nuclear weapons in orbit
  • Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (1968) - designed to stop the spread/development of nuclear weapons
  • USA began to sell grain to the USSR (1963) because of poor harvests there
  • Hotline telephone link established between the White House + the Kremlin in case of a crisis (1963)

Background:

• Since 1948, Czech was a model satellite state but in the 60's, opposition to USSR control grew

Life under USSR rule:

• 1960's, people v. disappointed by their standard of living
• The people resented their lack of freedoms e.g.: wanted free elections again, workers wanted more say in how to run their factories, freer media etc
• They were scared of the Secret Police

Novotny (Czech leader since 1957):

• Unpopular hard-line Communist (more so than Khrushchev). Followed the USSR line + refused to introduce reforms
• Was slow to follow Khrushchev's policy of de-Stalinisation
• Was especially slow to release political opponents jailed under Stalin

Czech's declining economy:

• The USSR forced Czech to produe materials e.g.: steel for the Soviet economy although they needed those raw materials + were stopped from producing consumer goods
• 1962/3 the national income dropped
• Novotny's attempts at reform after 1965 (the New Economic Model) were unsuccessful as they produced a surplus of consumer goods that few could afford

Soviet support?

• The failure of the economic reform encouraged many Czech's to demand greater democracy
• Oct 1967, Dubcek, Ola Sik (economist) + several reformers challenged Novotny's leadership at a successful meeting at the Central Committee of the Communist Party
• Dec, Dubcek invited Brezhnev (USSR leader from 1964) to Prague. He was surprised by the extent of opposition + withheld support for Novotny

• 5th Jan 1969, Novotny replaced as 1st Secretary of the Communist party by Dubcek
• March, Novotny resigned as President of Czech + replaced by Gen. Ludvik Svoboda
• Despite being communist, after 1964, Dubcek increasingly supported capitalist economic views, favouring a greater role for private enterprises

The Prague Spring Reforms:

• The removal of travel restrictions + fresh contact with the West e.g.: trade with West Germany
• The reduction in the power of the secret police e.g.: to imprison without trial
• The creation of work councils, representing the workforce to improve working conditions + an increase in rights for members of trade unions
• Greater political freedoms e.g.: free speech + the abolition of press censorship. March 1968, newspapers were printing uncensored political/social issue discussions. News coverage on radio/TV became fuller. Corruption + bureaucratic delays exposed by the media. Communist party leaders 'grilled' on live TV
• A 10-year programme for political change which would contrive democratic elections, a multi-party state + create a new form of democratic socialism. Aim: to give the Czech people a greater say in the running of the country

• They encouraged opponents of Communism + lead to demands for more radical reforms e.g.: June 1968, the Social Democrats began to form a rival party to the Communist party + Vaculik (leading journalist) published the manifesto, "the 2 thousands words", calling on the Czech people to take initiative + force even more extreme reforms
• USSR was suspicious. Czech was 1 of the most important countries in the Warsaw Pact, it was centrally placed + it had the strongest economy. Brezhnev worried that Czech would leave the Warsaw Pact, allowing NATO to move in - splitting the eastern bloc into 2 + advancing its frontier 700km east so it would border the USSR

Other reasons for the invasion of Czech:

• USSR was worried that the new ideas in Czech would spread to other s. states 
• Brezhnev was under pressure from E. German + Polish leaders (Ulbricht + Gomulka) to stop reform in Czech
• Bilak (leader of the Slovakian Communist Party) opposed the Prague Spring reforms + he was 1 of 5 people who signed a letter to Brezhnev suggesting that communism was under threat in Czech + asked that he would use "all the means of his disposal" to end the reforms (+invade)
• USSR afraid Czech was becoming closer to W. Germany as industrial relations strengthened

• 20th-21st Aug 1968, 000's of USSR troops backed by Warsaw states entered Czech
• Czech rebels threw petrol bombs, set fire to buildings + climbed on tanks
• The Czech army offered no resistance + less than 100 people died
• Dubcek was arrested + taken to Moscow
• It marked the end of the Czech movement towards democracy
• Hard-line leaders replaced the reformist Czech ones

The Brezhnev Doctrine:

• The USSR used propaganda to show the events in Czech were a serious threat to them
• The doctrine was introduced by Brezhnev in Autumn 1968 to justify the invasion
• It meant that the USSR had the right to invade any eastern European country whose actions appeared to threaten the security of the whole Eastern Bloc
• Brezhnev insisted that the USSR had no choice but to invade as Dubcek's actions threatened the Warsaw Pact + USSR
• It redefined communism as a 1-party system + declared that all member countries had to remain part of the Warsaw Pact + that the USSR would supress any attempt to relax communist control or intervene if a capitalist country threatened a communist one

Czech:

• Demonstrations against the USSR continued until April 1969
• Jan 1969, Palach set fire to himself as a protest
• The Czech Communist Party was purged, Dubcek forced to resign + become an ambassador in Turkey + under Husak, Czech was reverted to strict communist rule

USSR + USA relations:

• East-West relations worsened temporarily + western countries (esp. UK + USA) protested
• However, it didn't endanger USSR-USA relation + they thawed after a short break
• The USA was preoccupied by the 1968 presidential elections + the Vietnam War
• Brezhnev + Johnson (new US president) had an unspoken deal that the USA wouldn't intervene in Czech, if the USSR didn't intervene with Vietnam
• While the US publicly condemned the invasion, they offered no military support to Czech
• The invasion of Czech reduced international criticism of the USA's involvement in the Vietnam as the USSR's invasion of an ally was seen as far worse

Western Europe:

• Followed USA's lead + condemned the invasion without offering military help
• Western European communist parties in Italy + France were outraged + formally declared themselves as independent from the USSR Communist Party
• USSR increasingly lost influence, + they began to develop their own form of 'Eurocommunism'

Communist countries:

• Increased China-USSR rivalry. China criticised the use of force against another communist nation + feared it would be next
• Others began to move away from Moscow. P. of Romania (Ceausescu) refused to send troops to join the invasion. Albania did the same + left the Warsaw Pact in 1968
• Yugoslavian + Romanian govs condemned the invasion + distanced themselves from USSR
• 1968+, Yugoslavian + Romanian communists formed alliances with China. USSR didn't react as it was preoccupied with events in Czech

~The end of the Cold War 1970-91~

-Reduce the risk of nuclear war -Reduce the cost of the arms race -USA learnt a lesson from the Vietnam War (wanted better relations with the USSR + China)

The 70's detente:

• 72, Nixon (USA president) visited Mosocow seeking improved relations
• May 72, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) 1 between USSR + USA. Meant that antiballistic missiles were regulated + the no of intercontinental ballistic missiles + sub-launched ballisitc missiles were frozen
• Oct 73, Yom Kippur War. After initial disagreements on how to solve it (B wanted joint invasion, N didn't), superpowers agreed on a non-nuclear UN peacekeeping force + it ended
• 73, Cease fire in Vietnam between N Vietnam + US, Brezhnev acted as intermediary
• 73, Brezhnev visited Washington seeking improved relations
• 74, Nixon visited Moscow + they agreed on several points e.g.: to remove the danger of war, limit the arms race, relax world tensions + promote increased understanding between them
• 75, Helsinki agreement - USA, USSR, Canada + mjr European powers accepted European frontiers set up after WW2 - recognising that Germany was divided + East European countries agreed to allow their people human rights e.g.: freedom of speech
• June 79, SALT 2. Talks about reducing weapons, ended with an agreement to limit stategic launchers e.g.: MIRV systems, CBM's + a ban on construction of new land-based ICBM's

Why did the USSR invade Afghanistan?

• to protect the Afghan communist revolution (the PDPA from the Mujahideen) + restore order
• Brezhnev said the USSR was only complying with the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation + Goodneighbourliness that former president Taraki signed
• it didn't want to see the collapse of a neighbouring socialist state/ the growth of US influence on its borders

What happened?

• 25th Dec - 1st Jan, 50,000+ USSR troops were sent to Afghanistan.
• 27th Dec, Amin was shot + replaced by Kamal who depended entirely on USSR military support

What was the impact of the invasion?

• Drastically changed relations between the superpowers
• USA saw that a USSR-occupied Afghanistan would threaten India + Packistan + would be a stepping-stone to possible control over much of the West's oil supplies

• 27th April 1978, PDPA, a communist party, overthrew Afghanistan's gov + Taraki became ruler
• In its 1st 18 months, the PDPA imposed a communist-style reform programme + 000's' of  members of the traditional elite - the Muslim establishment + intellectuals - were imprisoned, tortured or murdered
• Sept 1979, Amin (Deputy PM), seized power from Taraki, but there was continued instability because of anti-Muslim policies
• 000's of Afghan Muslims joined the Mujahideen - a guerilla movement that proclaimed to be on a holy mission for Allah + declared a jihad (holy war) on Amin's supporters
• The USSR military assistance programme (1978+) was incraesed, + Amin's regime became dependent on the USSR
• Amin didn't want to rely on the USSR + wanted to improve links with the USA
• Brezhnev was concerned about the growing power + spread of Islamic fundamentalism + wanted to show the 30 million Muslims in the USSR there would be no change to the way it was run
• The USSR saw fundamenatlism as a threat to the Soviet system

Gorbachev:

• Had no foreign policy experience prior to his leadership
• Was much younger than his predecessors + was prepared to adopt drastic policies to improve superpower relations e.g.: the 'new thinking' reforms
• Knew the USSR would collapse (unstable leadership 1982-5 4 leaders) if there weren't changes in relations
• Realised that communism in the USSR faced many problems e.g: it was crumbling under the pressure of the arms race, the economy was in a poor state, production figures were falling, SOL's were declining + corruption was becoming more rife

'New thinking' reform:

• Initiating sweeping reforms in the Communist Party + USSR system - perestroika (restructuring) + glasnost (openness)
• Endind the arms race with the USA + signing various reductions agreements
• Abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine + stopping USSR interference in satellite states

He wanted to maintain the USSR's role of superpower + knew that he had to win over the USSR people + show the world that he wouldn't threaten peace

What was it?

• A policy in which the USA stated that it would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region
• It promised US military aid to all of the countries bordering Afghanistan. To carry this out, Carter poroposed the creation of the Rapid Deployment Force

What was the Rapid Deployment Force (RDF)?

• A quick strike military force that could intervene anywhere in the world on short notice

The Carter Doctrine ended the detente

What was Reagen's (1981-9) attitude towards foreign policy?

• He believed in taking a far tougher line with the USSR than Carter
• Fighting communism became the mjr emphasis of his policy + he made it clear that he intended to confront the USSR whenever possible
• He placed less emphasis on human rights + was keen to increase US defence spending
• He wanted to eradicate the humiliation of the loss of the Vietnam War, hostage crisis in Iran + increasing influence of the USSR in Africa + Central America

Reagen's defence policy:

• He announced that the US defence programme (81-87) would cost $1+ trillion
• It included: the construction of 6 Trident nuclear subs, development of the neutron bomb (killed people but didn't damage property largely) + strengthening of military communication systems
• It came around as a result of the deployment of USSR SS20 missiles in the western Soviet Union

• Some people thought Reagen (+ his advisors) felt that they could win a limited nuclear war against the USSR by targeting their weapons, not cities, aka NUTS (Nulear Utilization Target Selection)
• This caused more tension as previously, both powers accepted MAD - Mutually Assured Destruction

The 'Zero' option:

• Reagen proposed to cancel deployment of new US IR missiles in western Europe if the USSR dismantled comparitable forces (600 SS20 IR missiles)
• Brezhnev rejected, USSR missiles were in Russia, USA ones were in Europe - didn't see that he was doing anything wrong/found it unfair

Polish solidarity:

• Reagen gave assistance to the Solidarnosc (a worker's trade union movement) because it was Capitalist

• 23rd March 1983, Reagen announced the Stategic Defence Initiative aka 'Star Wars' programme
• It was set up to build up the USA's defence system (against missiles) after the rejection of the Zero option
• It was a series of satellites + lasers in space to detect + destroy enemy missiles before they reached the USA
• It created problems in Russia; they felt pressure to compete, but the cost would ruin the USSR + put them behind US technology again
• Congress voted in favour of funding it

Geneva - November 1985:

• The Geneva Accord set out commiting the countries to catalyse arms talks, work towards the abolition of chemical weapons + be more active on issues of human rights
• However, Reagen refused to give up his commitment to the SDI (Stategic Defence Initiative)

Reykjavik - October 1986:

• Both agreed to sweeping reductions in nuclear arsenals
• It broke down following disagreements on the SDI + ABM Treaty so Gorbachev refused to sign an arms treaty

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty:

• Agreed to eliminate nuclear + conventional ground launched ballisitc/cruise missiles with ranges of 500-5500km. By the treaty's deadline, 2,692 of such weapons were destroyed
• Agreed that both could inspect each other's military installations

• The USSR economy could no longer stand the strain of supporting forces in eastern Europe
• 1989, Gorbachev rejected the Brezhnev Doctrine in 1988 + accepted that members of the Warsaw Pact could make changes to their own countries without outside interference
• The USSR would no longer favour trade with communist countries over capitalist trade

Gorbachev never intended to weaken communist control of eastern Euorpe, but after the Sinatra Doctrine, reform in eastern Europe became widespread

Reforms in East Germany -Oct 1989, G told Germany that USSR troops wouldn't put down their demonstrations. 23rd Oct 1989, 300k people protested in Leipzig + 4th Nov, 1M protested in East Berlin. 9th Nov, the Berlin wall opened. 3rd Oct 1990, Germany reunified to 1 country

Poland -1988, Strikes throughout the country. 1989, free trade union/solidarity won elections. Mazowieki became 1st non-communist PM in eastern Europe

Bulgaria -Democratic elections won by renamed Communist Party

Czech -17th Nov 1989, huge demonstrations against communism began, 24th communist gov resigned. 9th Dec, Havel became 1st non-communist PM of Czech since 1948. 1990, democratic elections won by Civic Forum (alliance of anti-communist groups)

Hungary -1988, G accepted that it could become a multi-party state. 1989, it opened its borders with Austria. 1990, democratic elections won by Democratic Forum (alliance of anti-communist groups)

Romania -16th Dec 1989, secret police fired on demonstrators in Timisoata. 21st Dec, huge crowd in Bucharest bood President Ceausescu who fleed but was later caught. 22nd-24th, army rejoined the rebellion + fought the secret police. 00's killed. 25th Dec, Ceausescu + his wife were shot by a firing squad. 1990, democratic elections were won by National Salvation Front, containing many ex-communists 

• East Germans saw what was happening in other eastern European states + demanded greater freedoms but the gov was reluctant to allow reforms
• Oct 1989, G visited + informed the political leaders that the USSR wouldn't get involved with its internal affairs
• Demonstrations increased + demands were made for free elections. 4th Nov = largest demonstration in East Germany's history
• There was a mass movement of people to West Germany via Hungary
• 9th Nov, East German gov announced it would open the border to West Germany + people began to dismantle the wall
• 3rd Oct 1990, West + East Germany was formally reunited + joined NATO 

• 19th Aug 1991, a group of senior communist gov officials organised a coup, removing G from power as they believed that perestroika + glasnost had weakened communism
• New gov declared a state of emergency + removed the policies. It only lasted 3 days as Yeltsin (Chair of the Russian Supreme Soviets) + the people of Moscow resisted it, saying it was illegal
• 21st Aug 1991, G returned to Moscow + resumed his lead, but the coup damaged his image + Yeltsin was a popular hero
• G's final attempt to help the USSR was the introduction of a new constitution, giving the USSR repulics e.g: Latvia + Ukraine, much greater independence
• Many nationalities/ethnic groups saw how the satellite states had separated from Moscow + wanted the same
• 1990, Estonia, Latvia + Lithuania declared themselves independent + were accepted by Moscow in 1991, leading to other demands for independence within the USSR
• There were fears that the USSR was going to disintergrate + G was opposed by most sections of USSR society
• 25th Dec 1991, G officially annonced the dissolution of the USSR + his resignation
• The USSR split into several independent states