Germany 1918-39

• 9 November 1918 - Kaiser abdicated after losing German support.
• 11 November 1918 - newly declared German republic accepted armistice with the Allies.
• The army felt the had been stabbed in the back - Dolchstoss. The politicians became the November Criminals.
• New Republic was to meet in Weimar because of troubles in Berlin.
• Needed to draw up a new constitution.
• First government was a coalition government as no one could gain a majority. Assembly chose Ebert of the SPD (Social Democratic Party)

Territorial terms:

• Lost all colonies.
• Alsace-Lorraine to be returned to France.
• Eupen-Malmedy given to Belgium.
• Saar to be administered by League Of Nations.
• Posen and West Prussia to be given to Poland.
• Danzig created a Free City.
• Memel administered by League of Nations.
• No union with Austria.
• North Schleswig to Denmark.

Military terms:

• Army not to exceed 100,000.
• No tanks.
• No aircraft.
• No naval vessels.
• No submarines.
• Rhineland demilitarized.

Financial terms:

• Coal from Saar given to France.
• Reparations of £6.6 billion.
• Cattle and sheep given to Belgium and France.
• Ships over 1600 tons to be given up.
• Replaced Allied merchant ships.

• People thought democracy was imposed on them.
• Consequences of war were creating unrest:
  • Shortages of food after British naval blockade.
  • Rise of Bolsheviks in Russia.
  • Inflation.
• The Spartacist uprising - attempt to establish a Communist state.
• The Kapp Putsch - attempt to seize Berlin and establish a right-wing government.

• Germany borrowed extensively to finance the World War 1 effort.
• Reparation figures for Germany to pay back were far too high.
• Weimar government printed more money which meant the currency value began to fall. Led to inflation.
• 1921 - Germany unable to pay reparations to France. France invades the Ruhr, Germany's major industrial area. Led to hyperinflation.

• Germany recovery down to Gustav Stresemann who worked with Allies to economic and international position.
  • Dawes Plan - lower reparations and payments.
  • US loans - given to Germany to help pay reparations.
  • Rentenmark - restored confidence in currency.
  • Young Plan - restructure of reparations.
  • The Locarno Treaties - improved German international position.
  • League of Nations - Germany's return as a 'Great Power'.
  • Kellogg-Briand Pact - France withdraws from Ruhr.
  • Political stability - less support for extremist parties.
• Overall position seemed to improve but Germany was over-reliant on US loans.

• US stock market collapses in October 1929. Banks ask Germany to pay back loans.
• Trade began to contract. Prices began to fall.
• Unemployment rose.
• January 1932 - 6 million unemployed.
• People lost faith in Weimar government, started to turn to extremist parties for solutions.

• Born in Austria 1889.
• Father died in 1903.
• Mother died in 1907.
• Not especially successful at school.
• Wanted to attend art college - was rejected by the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna.
• Fled to Germany in 1913. Joined army on outbreak of World War 1.
• Brave soldier - won Iron Cross in 1914. 
• 1918 - Wounded in a gas attack.
• Angered by German surrender - blamed November Criminals for Germany's position.
• 1919 - attended German Worker's Party meeting.

• German Workers Party (DAP) - social nationalist party.
• Founded by Anton Drexler.
• Hitler became an informant for the army and attended a DAP meeting in which he impressed Drexler.
• The led Hitler to joining the DAP where he discovered his skills in public speaking.
• Became responsible for recruitment and propaganda.

• February 1920 - Hitler and Drexler write the 25 Point Programme (political manifesto).
• Party grew rapidly in 1920 - became able to purchase its own newspaper, The People's Observer.
• Hitler became the leader of the NSDAP in July 1921.
• Began to develop ideas on how to lead the party.
• Gave himself the title of Fuhrer, establishing the idea of Fuhrerprinzip (the leadership principle).
• Adopted the swastika as party emblem; formation of SA which were used to disrupt other political party meetings.

• Growth of the Nazi Party.
• Weimar disgraced, people would turn to Hitler.
• German humiliation following the French occupation of the Ruhr.
• Hitler hated the Weimar Republic.
• Detested the Treaty of Versailles.
• Hitler won support of Ludendorff - former army general who was still very popular.
• SA used as armed support.
• Hitler was confident that von Kahr and the army in Bavaria would support him.
• Weimar blamed for hyperinflation.

• 8 November 1923 - Nazis seize beer hall in Munich where von Kahr, von Seisser and von Lossow were present.
• Hitler won promises of support from these via gunpoint, after which he releases them.
• Von Seisser  and von Lossow change their minds and organised troops and police to resist Hitler.
• Hitler still continues the march. They were defeated, 16 Nazis were killed.
• Hitler was arrested 2 days later and the Nazi Party was banned.

• Hitler tried for treason - this gave him nationwide publicity and a chance to express his political views.
• Sympathetic judges let him make long speeches. It was these speeches that made Hitler famous.
• Was found guilty but only sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison.
• He only served nine months before release.
• Completed his book My Struggle and realized that he needed to attain power by legal and political means.

• Banned after Munich but met secretly. The party became divided under the leadership of Alfred Rosenburg.
• Hitler managed to have the ban lifted and the Nazi Party was re-launched.
• The Bamberg Conference in 1926 allowed Hitler to strengthen his position as party leader:
  • Won rivals over such as Goebbels.
  • Removed opponents such as Rohm.
  • Set up ** (bodyguards to Hitler).
  • Set up the Hitler Youth.
• By 1928 the party had one hundred thousand members compared to its twenty seven thousand members in 1925.
• However, they only won 12 seats in Parliament in the 1928 elections.

• Between 1929 and 1933 the Nazi Party used propaganda to increase its support.
• Josef Goebbels became Minister of Propaganda.
• He knew how to use the mass media and manipulate huge audiences.
• In the 1930 elections the Nazis went up from 12 seats to 107.
• Nazis used modern technology in the Presidential election of 1932.
• Campaigns were supported by big industrialists such as Bosch who were afraid of trade unions and Communism.

• Hitlers image was very important:
  • The war hero.
  • The savior.
  • The ordinary man on the street.
  • The father figure.
• Hitler had one characteristic that most politicians did not have - charisma.
• Kept his promise to reduce unemployment.
• The Cult of the Fuhrer.

• Much violence leading up to the elections.
• Nazis won 230 seats in July 1932 elections (became the largest party in the Reichstag).
• Hitler though was refused the Chancellorship by Hindenburg.
• Von Papen could not secure a majority and was forced to resign. He was replaced by Schleicher.
• In January 1933 von Papen and Hitler joined up to form a Nazi-Nationalist government.
• On the 30 January 1933 Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany.

• Hitler had some problems when he became Chancellor..:
  • There were only 2 other Nazis in a cabinet of 12.
  • The Nationalist Party did not have a majority in the Reichstag.
  • Hindenburg detested Hitler and could remove him at any time.
• So, Hitler called an election for the 5 March 1933 to gain a majority.
• On the 27 February, one week before the election, the Reichstag building was set on fire. It was not known who started it.
• Nazis arrested Marinus van der Lubbe, a Dutch Communist.
• Hitler claimed the Communists were staging a take over.
• Political opponents were arrested and the party was banned.

• March 1933 elections - Nazis won 288 seats (not a majority).
• The passing of the Enabling Bill would grant Hitler 4 years of power.
• It was passed by devious means:
  • The SA intimidated voters.
  • Communists were not allowed to vote.
  • Communist Party were not counted, this meant there were less votes needed to pass.
  • Absentees counted as present.
  • Promises to the Catholic Center Party won their vote.
• The Enabling Bill was passed on the 24 March 1933 and was the end of the Weimar Constitution and  democracy in Germany.
• All other political parties were banned on the 14 July 1933.

• The Enabling Bill started the process of Gleichschaltung:
  • It effectively made Hitler a dictator.
• Other political parties were banned:
  • Destroyed all newspapers and confiscated funds.
  • On the 14 July Hitler made a law stating that the Nazi Party was the only one allowed.
• Regional governments were closed down:
  • Power was centralized to the Reichstag.
• Trade unions were banned:
  • On the 2 May 1933, Nazis broke into trade union offices all over the country and arrested thousands of union officials.
  • The unions were then replaced by the German Labour Front.
• Anyone who disobeyed or went against Nazi policies were sent to concentration camps for "re-education".

The Night of the Long Knives was the purging of political and military rivals in the SA on the 30 June 1934. Why?

• To win the support of the army:
  • If Hitler removed SA he could win the support of the army.
• Demands made by the SA:
  • They hoped that Hitler would introduce reforms to help workers.
  • Rohm, the leader of the SA, wanted to incorporate the army, more government interference and to bring greater equality - in effect he wanted a socialist revolution - which Hitler did not want.
• The views of the old elite:
  • Hitler had close relations with industrialists and army leaders.
• The views of Himmler and the **:
  • Himmler told Hitler that Rohm was a bout to seize power and that he wished to break away from the SA.

• Many of Hitler's opponents were now dead:
  • Rohm and Strasser of the SA.
  • Conservatives like von Schleicher.
• ** were established as a separate organisation from the SA:
  • 20 June 1934
  • Himmler now took orders only from Hitler.
• Hitler won the support of the army:
  • They now swore an oath of allegiance to Hitler himself, instead of to Germany.
• Murder had now become a part of government action:
  • Hindenburg backed Hitler and so did the Reichstag.

• The Nazis used fear and terror to control all aspects of German life.
• The **, SD (security service) and the Gestapo led by Himmler did this.
• Roles:
  • ** - removal of all opposition within Germany.
  • SD - maintaining security within the party and country.
  • Gestapo - arrested and imprisoned those suspected of opposing the state.

• All laws were interpreted in a Nazi fashion.
• Some Judges were removed.
• All judges had to become members of the National Socialist League for the Maintenance of Law.
• This meant that Nazi views were upheld in courts.
• October 1933 - the German Lawyers Front was established. It had ten thousand members by the end of the year.
• In 1934 a People's Court was established to try cases of treason.
• Judges were loyal Nazis.
• They knew that the Ministry of Justice would check that sentences were not too lenient.
• Hitler would sometimes alter sentences.
• By the end of 1934 Hitler had control of the legal system.

• Prisoners were classified into different categories, each denoted by a different colour triangle worn by the prisoners:
  • Political prisoners - this included Communists, members of other political parties and trade union leaders.
  • Sexual offenders.
  • The work shy - this included anyone unwilling to work, as well as gypsies, vagabonds, tramps and alcoholics.
  • Religious groups - known as the Bibleforscher (bible bashers). Included Catholics and Protestants.
  • Foreign Forced Labour Groups - non-German ethnic groups who were seen as a threat to the Nazi regime.
  • Professional criminals - included burglars and thieves.
  • Jews.
• Opponents of the regime were taken to concentration camps for questioning, torture and hard labour.
• Few survived the experience.

• Nazi ideals were opposed to the belief and values of the Christian Church:
  • Catholic Church:
    • Catholics owed their first allegiance not to Hitler, but the Pope.
    • Catholic school messages were opposed to that of the Nazi Party.
    • Catholics supported the Centre Party. Hitler intended to remove this party.
  • Protestant Church:
    • Some Protestants admired Hitler - they were called German Christians.
    • Many protestants opposed Nazism as it contradicted Christian beliefs.
    • Confessional Church was set up to oppose Hitler. The members were arrested and sent to concentration camps.

• Goebbels used many methods to control the thoughts, beliefs and opinions of the German people.
• All aspects of the media were censored and skilfully manipulated by Goebbels. These included:
  • Newspapers.
  • Rallies.
  • Radio.
  • Cinema.
  • Posters.
  • Books.

• Arts and sport were used a methods of propaganda.
• Goebbels set up the Reich Chamber of Culture.
• Arts:
  • Music - Jazz was banned, traditional German music was encouraged.
  • Theatre was to focus on German history and political drama.
  • Encouraged a 'monumental style' for public buildings.
  • Modern art was banned as it was seen as unpatriotic, backward and Jewish.
• Sport:
  • Germany needed to be a fit nation because boys were to be soldiers and girls needed to be healthy to breed.
  • Success in sport to promote the Nazi regime.
  • 1936 Berlin Olympics were used to show German as a 'Great Power' once again.
  • Success of black athletes such as Jesse Owen hindered this. Hitler refused to present medals to them.

• Teachers had to:
  • Promote Nazi ideals in the classroom.
  • Swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler.
  • Join the Nazi Teachers' League.
• Curriculum:
  • Race Studies was introduced to put across Nazi ideas on race.
  • Taught that the Aryan race was superior.
  • 15 percent of school time was devoted to PE.
  • Boys - emphasis on prep for the military.
  • Girls - needlework, home craft, mothers.
• Textbooks:
  • Rewritten to fit the Nazi view of history and racial purity.
• Lessons:
  • Began and ended with the Nazi salute.
  • Nazi themes and ideas were presented in every subject...
    • Maths problems dealt with social issues.
    • Biology used to show how Jews were physically inferior.

• Control the young in their spare time.
• From 1936 membership was compulsory.
• All other youth groups were banned.
• Boys:
  • Joined the German Young People at the age of ten.
  • From fourteen to eighteen they became members of the Hitler Youth.
  • Learnt Nazi songs and ideas.
  • Took part in athletics, hiking and camping.
  • As they got older they practised marching, map reading and military skills.
  • Many enjoyed comradeship. Also possible that they enjoyed the fact that their camps were often near to the of the League of German Maidens.
• Girls:
  • Joined the Young Girls at the age of ten.
  • From fourteen to eighteen they joined the League of German Maidens.
  • Did much the same as boys.
  • Also learnt domestic skills in preparation for motherhood and marriage.
  • Was much less emphasis on military training.

• Although many people enjoyed the Hitler Youth, it was not popular with many of its members.
• Not all young people accepted the Nazi ideas.:
  • In the 1930s gangs appeared on street corners.
  • The Edelweiss Pirates listened to forbidden music and daubed walls with anti-Nazi graffiti.
  • By 1939 the Edelweiss Pirates had 2000 members.

• Very traditional role.
• The Nazi ideal woman:
  • Did not wear make-up.
  • Was blonde, heavy-hipped and athletic.
  • Wore flat shoes and a full skirt.
  • Did not smoke.
  • Did not go out to work.
  • Did all the household duties, especially cooking and bringing up the children.
  • Took no interest in politics.

• Marriage and the family:
  • Propaganda campaign to promote motherhood.
  • Law of Encouragement of Marriage - giving loans to young couples.
  • German Women's Enterprise - organised classes and radio talks on motherhood.
  • On Hitler's mother's birthday, medals were awarded to women with large families.
  • Divorce was possible if a husband or wife could not have children.
  • Lebensborn (Life Springs) programme - breeding farms with ** men.
• Appearance:
  • Discouraged from wearing trousers, high-heels and make-up.
  • Were encouraged to keep healthy and wear their hair in buns.
  • Discouraged from dying or styling hair and from slimming.
• Jobs:
  • "Three K's" - Kinder (children), Kuche (kitchen) and Kirche (church).
  • Women doctors, civil servants and teachers were forced to leave.
  • Girls were discouraged from going onto higher education.
  • Nazis changed policies from 1937 because they needed women to replace the men when the men went to war.

• Labour Service Corps:
  • Provide young men with manual labour jobs.
  • In 1935 it was made compulsory for all men aged 18-25 to server for 6 months.
  • Lived in camps, wore uniforms, received low pay and carried out military drills.
• Job creation schemes:
  • Nazis subsidised private firms.
  • Introduced road-building programmes.
  • Built 7000 kilometres of motorways.
• Invisible unemployment:
  • Jews dismissed from jobs.
  • Unmarried men under 25 who were pushed into the National Labour.
  • Women dismissed from schemes.
  • Opponents held in concentration camps.
• Rearmament:
  • In 1935 Hitler re-introduced conscription.
  • Heavy industry expanded.
  • Billions spent on building tanks, planes and ships.

Better off:

• Strength through Joy - tried to improve the leisure time of German workers.
• Beauty of Work - tried to improve working conditions.
• Volkswagen scheme - opportunity to buy a car.
• Wages - average weekly wages rose from 86 marks in 1932 to 109 marks in 1938.

Worse off:

• Lack of freedom - lost their rights under the Nazis.
• Strength through Joy - very few could afford the expensive holidays.
• Volkswagen Swindle - by 1939 no one owned a car through this scheme and there were no refunds.
• Cost of living - increased during 1930s.
• Hours of work - increased from 42.9 hours per week in 1933 to 47 in 1939.

• Wanted to create a pure German state, all non-German groups were second class citizens.
• Theory based on the idea of the 'master race' and the 'sub-humans'.
• Master Race - all Germans were from pure Aryan descent.
• Sub-humans - Jews and Slavs.

• Jewish people have been persecuted throughout history.
• This is because Jewish people stood out as different in regions across Europe.
• Hitler had spent several years in Vienna where there was a long tradition of anti-Semitism.
• He resented the wealth of many of the Viennese Jews.
• He used Jews, in the 1920s, as scapegoats for all society's problems.
• He blamed them for defeat in World War 1, hyperinflation in 1923 and the Depression of 1929.
• Hitler was determined to create a pure racial state.
• This did not include the one hundred thousand Jews that lived in Germany.
• He wanted to eliminate the Jews from German society.

• Hitler did not immediately persecute the Jews, he needed to get the support of the people first.
• Used propaganda and schools to achieve this.
• The Jews were seen as sub-humans.
• They loss their rights, freedom and citizenship.
• They were sent to concentration camps.
• Jewish children were humiliated in front of their peers at school.
• Jews were used as scapegoats in textbooks.
• Children's books showed the Jews as ugly and scary.
• Jewish shops were boycotted.
• Jews were banned from public spaces.
• Nuremberg Laws were introduced:
  • Reich law on citisenship - Jews lost citizenship, right to vote and hold government office.
  • Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour - banned marriage/sexual relations between Jews and Germans.
• Jews had to carry identity cards.

• On the 8 November 1938, a young Polish Jew shot a German official in Paris.
• This was because he had heard about Jews being deported from Germany, including his family.
• In relation to this murder, the Germans launched an attack on Jews and Jewish property on the night of the 9 November.

• About 100 Jews were killed.
• 20 thousand were sent to concentration camps.
• 7500 Jewish businesses were destroyed.
• Nearly 200 synagogues were burnt down.
• The night became known as Crystal Night as a reference to all the broken glass resulting from the destruction.
• Views of the German people:
  • Many Germans were disgusted at what happened.
  • Hitler and Goebbels were anxious that it should not be seen as the work of the Nazis.
  • It was portrayed as a spontaneous act of vengeance by Germans.

• Hitler officially blamed the Jews themselves for having provoked the attacks.
• He used this as an excuse to step up the campaign against them.
• He decreed the following:
  • Jews are fined one billion Reichmarks as compensation for the damage.
  • Jews can no longer own or manage businesses or shops or employ workers.
  • Jewish children can no longer attend Aryan schools.

• Gypsies - homeless, work-shy and threatened racial purity.
• Vagrants - 'asocial', beggars and they didn't work.
• Black people - not pure Germans and they were seen as pollutants of society.
• Mentally ill - could not reproduce good Aryan soldiers and they were no good to society.
• Homosexuals - could not reproduce, making them no good to society.

• Sterilisation Law:
  • Passed in July 1933.
  • Allowed Nazis to sterilise people with certain illnesses described as 'simple mindedness' and 'chronic alcoholism'.
• Concentration camps:
  • Many 'undesirables' were sent to concentration camps.
  • Such as prostitutes, homosexuals, juvenile delinquents, gypsies and tramps.
• Euthanasia campaign:
  • Exterminate the mentally ill.
  • 6000 disabled babies, children and teenagers were murdered by starvation or a lethal injection.