External Class Differences in Achievement

Cultural deprivation is where working class children don't learn the basic values, attitudes and skills through primary socialisation so they grow up culturally deprived and so underachieve

Language

Less educated parents are more likely to use language in ways that only require children to make simple statements resulting in lower performance. Feinstein found that educated parents are more likely to use praise which encourages their children to work harder. As a result of the language used by the working class, children fail to develop the necessary language skills needed to achieve so they grow up incapable of abstract thinking so they are unable to take advantage of the opportunities that school offers

Bernstein (1975) distinguishes between two types of speech codes to compare the language of the working and middle classes:

Restricted code - Typically used by the working class with limited vocabulary and the use of short, grammatically simple phrases. It is descriptive not analytic and is context bound

Elaborated code - Typically used by the middle class with wider vocabulary and the use of longer, grammatically more complex phrases. It is more varied and is context free

These differences give middle class children the advantage at school as the elaborated code is used by teachers, examiners and textbooks so they are more used to used it compared with working class children who feel excluded so are less successful

Douglas (1964) found that working class parents placed less value on education so as a result they were less ambitious for their children, visted schools less often so their children had lower levels of motivation and achievement

Parenting style - Working class discipline is marked by harsh or inconsitent discipline which prevents the child from learning independence leading to problems interacting with teachers at school

Parents' educational behaviours & use of income - Educated parents engage in reading to their children, helping with homework etc and because they have a higher income are more likely to spend it on educational resources. Bernstein & Young found that middle class mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, games etc

Large sections of the working class have different goals and values from the rest of society and this is why they underachieve. Sugarman (1970) argues that working class subculture has four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement:

Fatalism - a belief in fate, whatever will be, will be. This contrasts with middle class views which emphasise you can change your status through your own efforts

Collectivism - valuing being part of a group more than succeeding than an individual. This contrasts with middle class views which emphasise individualility

Immediate gratification - Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future. This contrasts with middle class views which emphasise the opposite

Present time orientation - Seeing the present as more important so not having long term goals but the middle class see planning for the future as important

Compensatory education programmes aim to tackle the problem of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools and communities in deprived areas. They intervene early in the socialisation process to compensate children for the inadequate socialisation they receive at home

Operation Head Start - In the US in the 1960s they imposed a multi billion dollar scheme tackling pre school education in the most deprived areas. Its aim was planned enrichment to instil motivation including improving parenting skills and setting up nursery classes. The TV show Sesame Street provided a means of transmitting values and skills such as literacy and numeracy 

Sure Start - In the UK a major element in the New Labour policies was to tackle povery and social exclusion. By 2010 there were 3,100 children centres in the most disadvatanged areas. They provided integrated education, family support etc to promote the social development of children to succeed. However, since 2011 there has been cuts to funding meaning many centres have closed down

Keddie (1973) described cultural deprivation as a victim blaming myth. She dismisses the idea that failure at school is down to a deprived home background and argues that a child can not be deprived of its own culture. The working class are simply culturally different, not deprived. 

Working class children fail because they are put at a disadvantage in a dominated middle class education system. Keddie argues that schools should challenge anti working class prejudices with Troyna & Williams also arguing that the problem is not the child's language but the school's attitude towards it as they have a speech hierarcy where they label middle class language as highest

Some also criticise the view that working class parents are not interested in their children's education. They attend fewer parents evenings not because they are uninterested but because they work longer or shift hours 

Material deprivation refers to poverty and a lack of material necessities such as adequate housing and income. Nearly 90% of failing schools are in deprived areas and less than 1/3 of pupils eligible for free school meals achieve 5 or more A*-C GCSEs as against 2/3 of other pupils

Housing

Overcrowding can have a direct effect by making it harder to study. Young children's development can also be impaired through lack of space for safe play. Poor families may also live in temporary accomodation resulting in frequent changes of schools. There are also indirect effects such as cold and damp housing causing ill health meaning more absences at school and ultimately lower achievement

Diet and health

Howard (2001) notes that young people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals. Poor nutrition affects health by weakening the immune system resulting in more absences from school due to illness, and difficulties concentrating in class

According to Wilkinson, among 10 year olds the lower the social class the higher rate of hyperactivity and conduct disorders which have a negative effect on the child's education

Blanden & Machine found that children from low income families were more likely to engage in fighting and temper tantrums which are likely to disrupt their schooling

Financial support & the costs of education

Tanner found that in the Oxford area the cost of items such as books, computers, transport etc placed a heavy burden on poorer families. Poor children may have to make do with hand me downs resulting in them being isolated and bullied by peers. According to Flaherty, this fear of stigmatisation explains why 20% of those eligible for free school meals do not take them

Lack of funds also may mean working class children need to find a part time job earlier such as babysitting and cleaning which has a further negative effect on their schoolwork

In addition Education Maintenance Allowances which provided financial support to the 16+ staying on in education was abolished in 2011

Fear of debt

Attitudes towards debt may deter working class students from going to university, with many being more debt averse seeing the costs of university rather than the benefits

When tuition fees rose to £9,000 in 2012 UCAS saw a 8.6% drop in the number of applicants in comparison to the previous year

Reay found that working class students were more likely to apply to local universities so they could save money by staying at home. This however restricted their options of going to better universities and gaining better degrees 

Both Material and Cultural deprivation do not explain why some working class students do go on to good universities and achieve. For example the religious, cultural and political values may play a part in sustaining motivation

Bourdieu (1984) argues that both cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement. The term capital refers to wealth usually but can also be educational capital and cultural capital. He argues that the middle class possess all 3 types which is why they are more successful

Cultural capital

Cultural capital refers to the knowledge, values, attitudes etc of the middle class. This middle class culture is a type of capital as it gives an advantage to those who possess it. Through their socialisation middle class children acquire the ability to analyse ideas giving them an advantage at school in an environment which transmits their culture

By contrast working class children feel school devalues their culture as rough and inferior leading them to exam failure

Educational & economic capitalWealthier parents can convert their economic capital into educational capital by sending their children to private schools and paying for extra tuition. 

Middle class parents are more likely to be able to afford a house in the catchment area of a good school. This is known as selection by mortgage as it drives up the cost of houses near to successful schools excluding working class families

A test of Bourdieu's ideas

Sullivan used questionnaires to conduct a survey to assess the cultural capital of 465 students by asking them about their TV viewing habits etc. She found that those who read complex fiction and watched documentaries so had the biggest cultural capital were mainly children of graduates