Education- class differences in achievement

How does class effect a child's chances of success in education?

Children from middle class families on average perform better than working class children, this class gap in achievement grows as children get older. Middle class children, do better at GCSE, stay longer in full time education and take the vast majority of university places. 

What is cultural deprivation?

Sociologists believe we begin to aquire basic values, attitudes and skills needed for educational during primary socialisaion. Cultural deprivation theorists believe that many working calss families fail to adequately socialise their children. These child  therefore grow up culturalltt deprived- they lack the cultural eqipment needed to do well in school so therefore they underachieve. There are three main aspects of cultural deprivation: language, parents education and working class subcultures. 

How does parents language effect children?

Language is an essential part of the process of education, and the way in which parents commuicate with their children effects their cognitive development and their ability to benefit from the process of schooling.

What did Hubbs-Tait et al find about language and educational achievement?

The found that where parents use language that challenges theeir children to evaluate their own understanding and abilities, cognitive performance improves. Feinstien found that educated parents are more likely to use lnagauuge in this way. By contrast, less educated parents tend to use langauage in ways which only require children to make simple descriptive statements, this results in lower performance. Feinstien found that educated parents are more likely to use praise, this encourages children to develop a sense of their own competence.

What are the two speech codes which Bernstein identifies?

• Restricted code- the speech code typically used by the working class. Has a limited vocabualry, and is based on short, unfinished, gramatically simple sentences. Speech is predictable and may involve a single word, or even a gesture- it is descriptive not analyytic. The restricted code is context bound- the speaker assumes the listner shares the same interests.
• Elaborated code- used by the middle class. Has a wider vocabulary and is based on longer, gramatically more complex sentences. Speech is more varied and communicates abstract ideas. The elaborated code is context free- the speaker does not assume thelistner shares the same experiences- so they use language to spell out their meanings. 

How do these speech codes effect educational achievement?

The differences in speech code give the middle class the advantage at school and puts the working class at a disadvantage.This is because the elaborated cose is the language used by teachers, text books and exams. It is also a more effective tool for analysing and reasoning and for expressing thoughts clearly and effectively.

When are the children socialised into these speech codes?

Early socialisation into the elaborated speech code means middle-class children are already fluent users of the code when they begin school. They therefore feel more at home at school so are more likely to suceed. On the other hand, working class children who lack the code in which schooling takes place are more likely to feel excluded and be less sucessful in school.

What is working class parents attitude towards the education system according to Douglas?

Douglas found working class parents placed less value on education.They were therefore less ambitious for their children, gave them less encouragement and took less interest in their education. They visited schools less often and were less likely to discuss their childrens progress with teachers, therefore their children has lower levels of motivation and achievement.

How does Feinstein believe parents own education affects thier children's achievements?

Feinstein argues parents own education is the most important factor in affecting children's educational achievements. As since middle class parents are more likely to be better educated, they are able to give their children an advantage in how they socialise them.

How does parenting style effect children's educational achievement?

Educated parents parenting style emphasises consistent discipline and high expectations of their children, this suupports their education by encouraging active learning and exploration. By contrast, less educated parents parenting style is marked by harsh inconsistent discipline that emphasises doing what you are told and behaving yourself. This prevents the child fom learning independence and self-control, leading to poorer motivation at school and problems interacting.

How do parents educational behaviours effect educational achievement?

Educated parents are more aware of what is needed to assist their childrens educational progress. Therefore they engage in behaviour such as reading to their children, teaching them letters and numbers, songs, poems and nursery rhymes, painting and drawing and helping with homework and being actively involved in their schooling. Educated parents are also better able to get expert advice on childrearing, moree sucessful in establishng relationships with teachers and better at guiding their children's interactions with schools. These parents also recognise the value of visits to museams and libaries. 

How does use of income effect educational achievement?

Better eucated parents not only have a higher income but also spend their income in ways which promote their childrens educational success. For example as Berstein and Young found, middle class mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, books and actiities which encourage reasoning skills and stimulate intellectual development. Working class homes are more likely to lack these resources which means children from such homes start school without the intellectual skills needed to progress. Educated parents also have a better understanding of nutrition and its importance in child development, they also have a higher income which they buy more nutritious foods with.

How do parents educational behaviours effect educational achievement?

Educated parents are more aware of what is needed to assist their childrens educational progress. Therefore they engage in behaviour such as reading to their children, teaching them letters and numbers, songs, poems and nursery rhymes, painting and drawing and helping with homework and being actively involved in their schooling. Educated parents are also better able to get expert advice on childrearing, moree sucessful in establishng relationships with teachers and better at guiding their children's interactions with schools. These parents also recognise the value of visits to museams and libaries. 

How does use of income effect educational achievement?

Better eucated parents not only have a higher income but also spend their income in ways which promote their childrens educational success. For example as Berstein and Young found, middle class mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, books and actiities which encourage reasoning skills and stimulate intellectual development. Working class homes are more likely to lack these resources which means children from such homes start school without the intellectual skills needed to progress. Educated parents also have a better understanding of nutrition and its importance in child development, they also have a higher income which they buy more nutritious foods with.

How does class, income and parental education affect educational achievement?

Middle class parents are better paid and are also better educated than working classs parents. Better educated parents also tend to have more successful children at school. 

What are the four features of the working class subculture chich act as a barrier to educational achievement according to Sugarman?

• Fatalism- a belief in fate- that whatever will be will be, and there is nothing you can do to chnaged your status. This contrasts with middle class values that emphasise that you can change your status through individual efforts.
• Collectivism- valuing being part of a group more than suceeding as an individual. This contrasts with the middle class view that individuals should not be held back due to group loyalties.
• Immediate gratification- seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrificed in order to get rewards in the future. Contrasts with middle class values which emphasis deferred gratification, making sacrifices now for rewards later.
• Present time oritentation- seeing the present as more importnat than the future and so not having long term goals or plans. By contrasts middle class culture has future-time oritentation, planning for the future is seen as important

How do these working class  subculture values affect childrens achievement?

Working-class childre internalise the belief and values of their subculture through the socialisation process and this results in them underachiveing at school.

Why do these differences in values exists?

Sugarman argues they stem from the fact middle-class jobs are secure careers offering prospects for continuous individual advancement. This encourages ambition, long-term planning an wlliningness to invest time and effort to get qualifications. By contrats, working class jobs are less secure and have no career strucuture though which individuals can advance. There are few promotion opportunities and earnings peak at an early age. It is argued parents pass on their values to their children through primary socialisation.

What is the aim of compensatory education programmes?

They aim to tackle the problem of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools and communities in deprived areas. They intervene early in the socialisation procedd to compensate children for the deprivation which they experience at home. 

What is operation head start?

It is a million dollar organsiation in the US, it is a scheme for pre-school education in poorer areas introduced in the 1960's. Its aim was planned enrichment of the deprived childs envrionment to develop skills and instil achievement motivation.  It included improving parenting skills, setting up nusery classes and home visits by an educational psychologist.

What is the myth of cultural deprivation by Keddie?

Keddie sees cultural dep as a myth and sees it as a victim blaming explanation. She dismisses the fact that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home. She points out that a child cannot be deprived of its own culture and argues working class children are culturally different rather than deprived. They fail becuase they are put at a disadvnatge by an education system which is dominate by middle class values. She argues rather than seeing the working class as deficient schools should builf on its strengths and chalenge anti-working class prejudices. 

How does Troyna and Williams critcise cultural dep theorists view of language?

They argue that the problem is not the childs language but the schools attitude towards it. Teachers have a speech hierachy they label middle class speech as the highest, followed by working class speech and then black speech.

What does the term mateiral dep refer to?

Refers to poverty and lack of material necessities such as adequate housing and income. 

How is poverty closely linked to underachievement?

• Barely 1/3 of children reciving school meals achieve 5 or more GCSE's, against 2/3 of other pupils.
• According to Falherty money problems in the family are a significant factor in younger childrens non-attendance to school.
• Exclusion and truancy are more likely for poorer families- children excluded from school are unlikely to return to school, whils 1/3 of persitent truants leave with no qualifications.
• 90% of failing schools are located in deprived areas. 

How does poor housing affect pupils achivement both directly and indirectly?

Overcrowding can have a direct effect by making it harder for the child to study. Overcrowding also means less room for educational activities, nowhere to do homework, disturbed sleep from sharing beds or bedrooms. Development of young children can be impaired through lack of space for safe play and exploration. Famlies living in temporary accomodation may find themselves moving frequently resulting in constant changes in schools and a disrupted education.

Poor housing can also have indirect effects. Children in poor housing are at greater risk of accidents, whilst cold or damp housing can cause ill health. Families in temporary accomidattion suffer more psychological disttress, infections and accidents, such health problems mean more absences from school

How does a poor diet and poor health affect achievement?

Howard notes young people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals. Poor nutrition affects health, for example by weakening the immune syste, and lowering energy levels. This may result in absences from school due to illness and difficulties concentrating in class. 

How does a lack of financial support and the cost of education affect achievement?

Lack of financial support means children from poor families have to do without equipment and miss out on experiences which would enhance their educational achievement. Tanner fond that the cost of items such as transport, uniforms, books, computers, calculators and art equipment paces a heavy burden on poor families. As a result poor children may have to make do with hand me downs and cheaper unfashionable equipment, this may result in them being isolated, bullied or stigmatised by their peers. Children from poorer backgrounds also need to work which effects educational achievement.

How does fear of debt affect peoples achievement (uni)?

Going to uni often involved getting into large amounts of debt, attitudes towards debt may deter working-class studentts from going to uni. Callender and Jacksin found that working class students are debt adverse, and saw it as something to be avoided. They saw more costs than beenfits in going to uni. The most debt adverse students were 5x less likely to apply than the most debt tolerant students. Working class students that go to uni are less likely to recieve financial support from their family, therefore fear of debt and less financial support explains why only 30% of students come from working class backgrounds. These financial restrcitions also restrict working-class students choice of universitys and cahnces of success. Reay found working class students were more likely to apply to local unis so they could live at home and save on travel costs, this gave them less opportunity to go to the highest status universities, they were alos more likley to work part time to fund their studies making it more difficult for them to gain a higher class degree.

What does the term cultural capital mean identified by Bourdieu?

Bourdieu uses the term cultural capital to refer to the knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the middle class.

Why does Bourdieu see middle class culture as a type of capital?

Because like wealth it gives an advantage to those who possess it.

How does the education system benefit middle class children?

He argues like Bernstein that through their socialisation, middle class children aquire the ability to grasp, analyse and express abstract ideas. They are more  likely to develop intellectual interests and an understanding of what the education system requires for sucess. This gives middle class children the advantage in school, where such ablities and interests are highly rewarded with qualifications, this is because the education system favours the dominant middle-class culture. 

How does the education disadvantage working class pupils?

Working class children find school devlaues their culture as rough and inferior. Their lack of cultural capital leads them to exam failure. Many working class pupils get the message that educattion is not for them and repsond by truanting, early leaving or not trying.

How can educational,economic and cutural capital be converted into one another?

• Middle class children with cultural capital are better equipped to meet the demands of the school curriculum and gain qualifications.
• Wealthier parents can conert their economic capital into educaional capital by sending their children to private school and by paying for extra tuition.
• As Leech and Campos show middle-class parents are also more likely to be able to afford a house in the catchment area of a school highly placed in exam league tables

How did Sullivan test Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital?

She used questionairres to conduct a survery of 465 pupils in 4 schools. To assses their cultural capital she asked them about a range of activities, such as reading and TV viewing habits, and wether they visited, art gallaries, museum's or theatres. SHe also tested their vocabulary and knowledge of cultural figures. 

She found that those who read complex fiction and serious TV documenteries developed a wider vocab and greater cultural knowledge inndicating a greater cultural capital. The pupils with the greatest cultural capital were students of graduates- these pupils were more likely to be successful at GCSE.

However, Sullivan found greater cultural capital only accounted for part of the difference in achievement. She condluces that greater resources and aspirations of middle class fmailies explains the remainder ofthe class gap in achievement.