Background

Politics belongs to social science discipline

Test thoughts against observations of reality - free from bias, prejudice and confusion

Do not confuse science with technology - it is a process of thinking and asking questions, not knowledge 

Social knowledge should be:

• Communicable (clear form)
• Valid (apporpriate evidence)
• Compelling (fits question)

Systematic thought needs:

• Reasoned judgement
• Opinion
• Objectivity

• Concepts
• Variables
• Hypotheses
• Measurements
• Theories

A label/tag or title for objects - based on language

Meanings of concepts --> human understanding and social control

Concepts are:

• Tentative 
• Based on agreement
• Useful when significant and definable 

Science checks concepts by testing links through observation 

Something that influences (or is influenced by) something else

Independent: variable that is changed or contolled

Dependent: variable that is measured and what is effected

Discrete quantification (number of children)

Continuous quantification (age)

The measurement is reliable if it yeilds the same results when others use it

Formulated sentence that provides organisation and structure to inquiry

Assess validity through hypotheses

• clearly specified and measureable variables
• precisely state relationship between variables
• testable - allow observation, demonstration or falsification

• Provides patterns for interpretation of data
• Links one study to another
• Provides framework so concepts and variables aquire substantive significance 
• Interpret larger meaning of findings - see bigger picture 
• No theory = social science is incoherent and meaningless
• BUT not all social science can be tied to specific theory

Quantitaitve - favours statistics to make causal inferences

Qualitative - favours collection of evidence to understand outcomes 

Both are right!!

1) Identify - variables or object of study

2) Create - hypotheses or assumption about relation

3) Test - measure/observe hypothesized relationship

4) Evaluate - compare results against orignial hypothesis and develop generalisations

5) Suggest - theoretical significance 

• Inference - make descriptive or explanatory inferences on basis of empirical information
• Public procedures - use explicit, codified and public methods to generate and analyse data
• Uncertain conclusions - have to estiamte for uncertainty (won't be interpretable)
• Method as content - adhere to set of rules of inference which validity depends on

Theory building - induction

Theory testing - deduction

Important because:

• sets out framework
• helps collect empirical evidence 
• establish relations between variables

• Alternative 
• Antecdent - comes before the independent variable
• Intervening - things that may interrupt

At least 2!

• Null hypothesis - presume no relationship
• Alternative hypothesis - what you're trying to study

Need to establish a causal link - changes in one are attributed to variation in another

Define:

• properties of the variable
• appropriate meaurement technique
• levels of measurement that are possible

Nominal - classify

Ordinal - classify and order

Interval - classify, order, set units of distance

Ratio - classify, order, set units of distance, locate absolute zero

How indicative is the sample for the wider population?

Stratification 

Random sampling

Association - establish relation between variables

Correlation - describe direction and strength of association between variables

Ultimate goal - move from correlation to causality

Factuality - observation of facts

Reality - understanding

Actuality - reflecting on experience

Inferences:

Drawing larger conclusions on basis of empricial observations

• Descriptive - generalising, simplifying
• Causal - counterfactual question

Assumptions:

Causal inference is based on assumptions

Additional observations independent from each other/degree of contingency

Provide logical framework for reasoning 

• Must consult nature (Bacon)
• Directing capacities of reason (Kant) - rational beings
• Objective thruth through science
• Knowledge obtained through sense (HUme, Locke)
• Vienna Circle: neutral observation language (1920s)
• Distinction between facts and values

Philosophy relied upon findings of science 

Natural and social sciences share common methodological foundation

2 forms of knowledge - empirical and logical

All ideas come from experience

• Verstehen - understanding
• Erklaren - explaining

No neutral language so can't be value-free

Has to be falsifiable - inconsistent with some observation statement

If it is not falsifiable it is not scientific

Popper:

• Laws and generalisations go beyond experience
• Theoretical terms go beyond experience
• Metaphysical concepts dont refer to experience

Popper rejected unduction and positivism - not logically valid, can't move to universal generalisation

Only deduction is logically valid - ask questions not observations

Sociological factors in scientific change

Theory dependence on observation

Paradigms:

• disciplinary matrix