first half of unit one

Ancient ___ believed the heart was the sole source of energy and wisdom

Egyptains

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Ancient ___ believed that the brain was the seat of the soul

Greeks

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Definition of body

physical parts like your brain

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Definition of mind

relates to our self-awareness/ability to think

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Definition of dualism

the belief that the mind and the brain are different

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Definition of "monism"

the belief that the mind and the brain are the same

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Phrenology

was a method used to assess an individuals personality, traits, intelligence and mental functions by feeling the bumps, grooves and shape of the skull

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definition of function

what something does, the "mental" part of something

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definition of structure

the physical display of something, the skull etc

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definition of autopsies

used to determine the cause of death or to confirm a hypothesis

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definition of brain ablation

surgical removal, cutting or destruction of selected brain tissues followed by an assessment of subsequent changes in behaviour

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spilt brain surgery

serving of the "corpus callosum" of patients with epilepsy to stop the seizures passing from one side of the brain to the other. Discovered that the left side was responsible for verbal tasks and controlled the right side of the body, while the right side

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what is ESB - electrical stimulation of the brain

a mild electrical impulse is sent through a probe which is inserted into or place onto the brain

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what is DSB - deep brain stimulation

an electrode is inserted into your brain and stays there
a pulse generator is also inserted under the collar or in the abdomen and connects to the electrode via a lead

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what is EEG - electroencephalograph

detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain
provides useful information about the brain activity but it cannot pinpoint an exact location

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what is neuroimaging

a range of techniques used to capture images of the brains structure, function and activity

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Methods of Trephination

Scraping
Grooving
Boring and cutting
Rectangular intersecting cuts
Drill holes & cut/chisel bone

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The Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialised cells known as neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body.
BASICALLY: it receives and processes information and coordinates a response

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what is in the Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord
Brain = control centre
Spinal cord = connects the brain to the body

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The Brain

Responsible for all we think, feel and do.
Brain processes info
Nerves (neurons)
Billions of neurons - trillions of connections – ‘circuits’ between them.

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Cerebral Cortex

Two almost symmetrical halves or hemispheres.
Cerebral cortex - convoluted outer layer.
Increases surface area - 75% of neurons in the brain.
2-3mm thick
Size related to intellectual functioning.

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Functions of the cerebral cortex

Higher mental (cognitive) processes including:
Language, Memory, Speech, Learning, Initiate actions, Problem-solving, Remember info, Imagine think and create – daydream, Feel emotions, Appreciate the beauty
Know the word cognitive.

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Cerebral Cortex
divisions

Cerebral cortex - basically divided into two “types” of areas.

Areas that receive info (primary cortex ) and areas that process and integrate sensory and motor information (association areas).

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Spinal Cord

‘Column’ of nerves
Two main functions;
To transmit sensory info (from sensory receptors) from the PNS to the brain for processing.
To transmit motor info from the brain to PNS – to muscles organs and glands.

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sensory information

from the PHS travels up the spinal cord to the brain

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motor information

from the brain travel down the spinal cord to the PHS

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Made up of every nerve in the body outside the brain and spinal cord.
The spinal cord (CNS) connects the CNS to the PNS.

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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) has two functions...

To transmit information from the internal muscles, organs, and glands (internal environment) and the sensory receptors (external environment) to the CNS.
To transmit information about how to respond from the CNS to the muscles, organs, and glands.

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Types of Nerves:

Sensory (afferent) neurons; Take info from senses to the spinal cord and hence brain
Motor (efferent neurons); Carry info (messages) from the brain to muscles, organs and glands via the spinal cord
Interneurons; Connect motor and sensory neurons – exist

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Imagine you put your right hand into hot water. How would the nervous system respond?

Sensory info from sensory receptors in hand sent to the brain via sensory neurons.
Information is registered in brain.
The brain makes a decision.
Motor messages sent to appropriate muscles by motor nerves.

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Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Responsible for all voluntary skeletal muscle movement. All nerves send and/or transmit messages to/from the skin and skeletal muscles. Info from sensory receptors - transmits to CNS.
Effect movements - carries motor messages from CNS to the muscles.
So r

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Communication of information between the CNS and the body’s non-skeletal muscles, internal organs and glands that carry out functions necessary for survival. Operates without voluntary control/conscious awareness. Connects CNS and internal muscles and org

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The Autonomic Nervous System has two divisions

Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System

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Sympathetic Nervous System
part one

Responsible for activating the body’s visceral organs, muscles and glands in order to prepare the body for dealing with high levels of activity (exercise) or escaping a threat.

It readies the body for action – fight/flight/freeze response

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Sympathetic Nervous System
part two

This increases activity Gets us “ready” for activity Targets stimulated through the release of the hormone adrenaline By adrenal glands – just above kidneys Extremely rapid response Survival mechanism Activated in response to emergency or threat. Prepares

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

Does the opposite of the sympathetic NS.
Most of the time, it dominates.
Maintains a constant internal environment. Both active at any one time.
At any given time - one dominates.
Parasympathetic NS dominant most of the time.
Normal state (homeostasis) -

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the neuron

The neuron is the main unit of the nervous system. They receive, process, and transmit information in the form of neuronal messages. Chemicals containing neurons messages are sent between neurons. These messages are powered by an electrical current genera

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Dendrites

Dendron, Greek for ‘tree’

Receive information from other neurons or sensory receptors via synapses and deliver this to the cell body (or soma).

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Soma (Cell Body)

Combines the neural information received from the dendrites and sends it to the axon.
Within the soma is the nucleus which contains the information that maintains the neuron and keeps it functioning.

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Axon

This is the nerve fibre that carries information from the soma to the end of the neuron, which is in contact with other neurons or cells.
Action potential - the information travels along the nerve fibre as an electrical impulse

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Myelin Sheath

A fatty substance that covers the axon to insulate it from surrounding fluid and other neurons.

1mm segments of myelin separated by small gaps (Nodes of Ranvier).

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Axon Terminals

Are responsible for the release of the neuronal message (neurotransmitters) into the synapse.

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Glial Cells

Greek work for ‘glue’

Not part of the neuron.

Specialised cells that have an important role in supporting neurons.

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The primary roles of glial cells are to:

Surround the neurons and hold them in place.
Supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons.
Repair neurons and eliminate diseased or damaged neurons.
Insulate one neuron from another and increase the speed of transmission of nerve impulses. To do this, the glial

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Communication between Neurons

Synapse - meeting point between two neurons.
Synaptic transmission - the process of neurons communicating with other neurons.
Neurotransmission – chemical process where an electrical impulse triggers the release of the chemical message.
Neural pathways -

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Hindbrain

Regulates reflex survival responses, mainly supports bodily functions and is the link between the brain and spinal cord. It includes MEDULLA PONS CEREBELLUM,
hOLLY mADE pOLLY cRY

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Cerebellum

The primary function of the cerebellum is to calculate and help coordinate muscle movement.
Control balance and posture.
Sequencing motor activity.
Important for procedural memories.

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Medulla

Mass of neurons located at the very bottom of the brain stem, connecting the brain to the spinal cord.
Functions to regulate our autonomic functions, such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, blood pressure, sneezing, and so on.

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Pons

Directly above the medulla
Relays information between the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum, as well as between the medulla and the midbrain
Regulates respiratory system
Involved in sleep
Involved in some involuntary movements

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Midbrain

The midbrain is involved in:
processing sensory information, such as auditory, visual, and touch information
regulating sleep and physiological arousal
motor movement
Coordinates movement, sleep and arousal.
mY rECTUM fARTS

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RETICULAR FORMATION

filter inputs of information to the brain, passing important information to its different areas
adjusting muscle tension
regulating sleep-wake cycle
regulating physiological arousal and alertness through reticular activation system (RAS)

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Forebrain

Upper-level structures - complex cognitive functionsLargest of the three areas of the brain.
Cognitive functions
This includes:
CEREBRUM THALAMUS HYPOTHALAMUS
f*CK hARRY tHE cHEF

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THALAMUS

Relay centre
Regulates arousal, attention, and activity.
Processing sensory stimuli in the environment (except smell).
It determines which of the incoming sensory information is the most important for us to pay attention to.

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HYPOTHALAMUS:

Range of functions related to emotional and motivated behaviour, as well as maintaining biological functioning
Maintaining homeostasis
Sleep cycles, hunger, sex drive.
Pleasure-seeking/pain-averting and emotions

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CEREBRUM:

Covered by the cerebral cortex and divided into the left and right hemispheres.
Separated by the longitudinal fissure and connected by the corpus callosum.
These structures are responsible for a wide range of complex functions.

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HIPPOCAMPUS

consolidation of long-term memory

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AMYGDALA

responsible for emotions; emotional memory.

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Role of cerebral cortex…

This is the thin outer layer of the cerebrum.
Involved in complex function (initiation of voluntary movement, symbolic thinking, and regulation of emotions).

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Hemispheric Specialisation

Hemispheres are two almost symmetrical areas of the brain. Share many of the same functions, but perform these on different sides of the body (contralateral organisation). Each hemisphere also has its own specialised functions (hemispheric specialisation)

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Each lobe has…

Primary cortices (areas) – about 25% of cortex
Association areas – about 75% of cortex

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The Frontal Lobe

The frontal lobe comprises specific brain regions that each have distinct functions. These include the: Prefrontal cortex Premotor cortex Primary motor cortex Broca’s area

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Prefrontal Cortex

An important role in executive functions (higher-order cognitive capabilities). Symbolic thinking Reasoning Decision making Planning Regulation and expression of emotions that influence personality Initiating voluntary movement Last area to fully develop

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Premotor Cortex

Receives planned movements from the prefrontal cortex and processes them into the organised sequence of movements that are required for the fluent execution of movement by our skeletal muscles.

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Primary Motor Cortex

The sequence of actions is sent to the primary motor cortex, which initiates voluntary movements by signalling other parts of the brain to send motor messages to our skeletal muscles.

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Hemispheric Specialisation in the Frontal Lobe

The primary motor cortex on the left side of the frontal lobe is responsible for initiating motor movement on the right side of the body, and, the primary motor cortex on the right side of the frontal lobe is responsible for initiating motor movement on t

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Broca’s Area

Responsible for the production of speech.
Coordinating the appropriate movements (i.e. movement of tongue, lips, jaw, and vocal cords) required to produce speech clearly and fluently.

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What would be the result of damage to the frontal lobe?

Broca’s aphasia Movement disorders Difficulty planning Mood swings Apathy Changes in personality Disinhibition Inappropriate behaviour Difficulty paying attention/trouble focusing Difficulty making decisions

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Parietal Lobe

Sensation (touch, pressure, temperature, pain).
The spatial location of objects (WHERE). Spatial awareness (judging position of body parts in space). Mental arithmetic. Visuospatial functions.
The parietal lobe comprises specific brain regions that each h

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Primary Somatosensory Cortex

The primary somatosensory cortex receives and processes sensory information and is important for spatial awareness.

Touch, pressure, temperature, pain.

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what would be the result of damage to the parietal lobe?

Somatosensory cortex damage - loss of sensation
Poor body awareness
Poor spatial awareness
Difficulty integrating information
Difficulty distinguishing left from right

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Spatial Neglect

Most often, arises from right parietal damage
Patient neglects the opposite side of space, as well as the opposite side of their own body
Often unaware that anything is wrong!

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The Occipital Lobes

Primarily vision and perception
Primary Visual Cortex

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Primary Visual Cortex

The primary visual cortex is located at the back of each occipital lobe and receives information from the retina of both eyes. The left half of each eye (right half visual field) sends information only to the visual cortex in the left occipital lobe. The

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what would be the result of damage to the occipital lobe?

Loss of vision (cortical blindness)
Difficulty recognising visual material (e.g. shapes, objects, faces)
Problems paying attention to information, or making sense of it
Judging distance between self and object

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The Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information Understanding speech Comprehension of written and spoken language Memory Face recognition (with occipital lobe) Object recognition Emotional reactions to sensory information and memories Primary Auditory Cortex

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Primary Auditory Cortex

The primary auditory cortex in each temporal lobe receives and processes sounds from both ears so that we can perceive and identify different types of sounds. Different areas of this cortex are specialized to register and respond to different features of

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Wernicke’s Area

Wernicke’s area has a crucial role in the comprehension of speech; more specifically, in interpreting the sounds of human speech.

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what would be the result of damage to the temporal lobe?

Difficulties processing auditory information (speech, music)
Wernicke’s aphasia
Short-term or long-term memory loss
Emotional disturbance
Difficulty attending to what they see and hear
Difficulty recognising faces

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Get Revising

first half of unit one

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