Research Methods (AS Level)

Aim

The purpose of a study.

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Directional Hypothesis

A hypothesis that specifically states the direction of the difference or relationship.

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Non-Directional Hypothesis

A hypothesis that doesn't specifically state the direction of the difference or relationship.

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Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher manipulates or changes naturally.

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Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that the researcher measures.

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Operationalisation

Clearly defining the variables in terms of how they can be measured.

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Randomisation

The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.

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Standardisation

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all ppts in the research study.

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Single-Blind Test

The ppt isn't aware of what the test is/ conditions are/ other ppts are doing whereas the researcher does (reduces demand characteristics, increases investigator effects).

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Double-Blind Test

Neither the ppts or the researcher know what the test is/ conditions are/ other ppts are doing; needs a third party to conduct the investigation (reduces demand characteristics and investigator effects).

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Extraneous Variable (EVs)

Any variable, other than the IV that MAY have an effect on the DV.

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Confounding Variables (CVs)

Any variable, other than the IV that WILL have an effect on the DV.

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Demand Characteristics

Any cue from the researcher or research situation which may be interpreted by the ppts as revealing the purpose of the study, even potentially unconsciously. This may lead to the ppt changing their behaviour.

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Investigator Effects

Any effect on the DV as a result of the investigator's behaviour (intentional or unconscious).

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Independent Measures

Ppts are allocated to different groups and undergo different conditions.

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Repeated Measures

All ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment.

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Matched Pairs

Ppts are paired based on similar variables that may affect the DV. The one of the pairs is allocated to condition A and the other to condition B.

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Laboratory Experiments

Conducted in a highly controlled environment using standardised procedures, not necessarily a lab (e.g. classroom).

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Strengths of Lab Experiments

Easy to replicate (using standardised procedures) and precise control over IVs and EVs (causation relationship and high internal validity).

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Limitations of Lab Experiments

Artificial setting/ stimuli + too specific behaviour (can't be generalised + ecological validity) and demand characteristics+ investigator effects (bias + confounding variables).

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Field Experiments

Conducted in an everyday environment and investigator manipulates IV.

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Strengths of Field Experiments

Natural setting + behaviour (high ecological validity) and less likely to be affected by demand characteristics.

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Limitations of Field Experiments

Lack of control over EVs to could bias results (hard to replicate) and ethical issues (ppts can't consent if they're unaware they being monitored).

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Quasi Experiments

Naturally occurring IV that can't be changed (already exists e.g. gender, age) in a controlled environment.

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Strengths of Quasi Experiments

Controlled conditions (easy to replicate) and precise control over EVs (causation relationship).

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Limitations of Quasi Experiments

Ppts can't be randomly picked (become CVs) and natural IV harder to find (reduced research opportunities).

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Natural Experiments

Conducted in an everyday environment with naturally occurring IV (investigator chooses not to manipulate IV).

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Strengths of Natural Experiments

Natural setting + behaviour (high ecological validity) and used in situations where it's ethically unacceptable to manipulate IV (e.g. eating disorder, domestic abuse).

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Limitations of Natural Experiments

Natural IV harder to find (reduced research opportunities) and no control over EVs (become CVs + harder to replicate).

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Population

The general population in the world.

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Target Population

A large group of individuals who the researcher may be interested in studying.

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Sample

A group of ppts who take part in the research. these are drawn from target pop + presumed to be representative of pop.

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Deception

Misleading + lying about the aim of the research to ppts.

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Right to withdraw

Ppts being able to withdraw both themselves + their data from the research.

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Informed consent

Ppts aware of the aim + procedures of the research + they decide whether or not to participate.

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Privacy

Privacy of the location of study.

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Protection from harm

Ppts aren't placed at any more risk than they would experience in their daily lives.

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Confidentiality

The right to control information + keep (personal) data protected.

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Pilot Study

A small scale 'trial run' of the investigation before the real conducted investigation. Data is irrelevant (focus on errors + changes in procedure, avoids wasting time and money).

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Natural Observation

Observing behaviour in a natural setting where everything has been left as it is. These should only occur in circumstances where people expect to be observed. E.g. listening to children’s comments in a classroom.

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Strengths of a Natural Observation

High ecological validity (findings can be generalised to everyday life).

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Limitations of a Natural Observation

Harder to replicate (more extraneous variables (EVs)).

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Controlled Observation

Some variables are controlled by the researcher, usually in a specifically designed environment. This is less natural are ppts may become aware they’re in a study.

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Strengths of a Controlled Observation

Extraneous variables (EVs) are more controlled (easier to replicate).

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Limitations of a Controlled Observation

Low ecological validity (findings can't be generalised to everyday life).

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Participant Observation

The observer becomes part of the group they’re studying. E.g. joining a sports team or being employed as a worker.

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Strengths of a Participant Observation

Researcher can experience the situation as the ppts do (increased insight + validity of findings).

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Limitations of a Participant Observation

Danger of losing objectivity (possibility of bias).

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Non-Participant Observation

When it’s impractical to join a particular group the observer remains separate, observing behaviour outside of the group in a more objective way.

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Strengths of a Non-Participant Observation

Allows the researched to keep an objective psychological distance.

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Limitations of a Non-Participant Observation

May be too far removed from ppts (lose insight into certain behaviours).

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Covert Observation

Behaviour is observed + recorded without obtaining consent. Ppts are unaware they’re being watched. The observer is usually hidden away from view. E.g. behind a one-way mirror or from across a room.

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Strengths of a Covert Observation

Ppts don’t know they’re being watched (removes demand characteristics).

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Limitations of a Covert Observation

Ethical issues (ppts don’t know they’re being watched, might not have given consent).

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Overt Observation

Behaviour is observed and ppts are aware they’re being watched. They have given their full consent.

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Strengths of an Overt Observation

Ppts given their consent (more ethically acceptable).

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Limitations of an Overt Observation

Demand characteristics (ppts’ may alter their behaviour).

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Subjective

Different results with different researchers.

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Objective

Same/similar results with any researcher.

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Strengths of Qualitative Data

Detailed + meaningful data as ppts can expand their answers (high ecological validity).

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Limitations of Qualitative Data

Difficult to analyse statistically + conclusions based on subjective interpretations (researcher bias).

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Strengths of Quantitative Data

Objective data (reduced researcher bias) and simply to analyse statistically + make comparisons.

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Limitations of Quantitative Data

Less detailed or meaningful data as ppts can't expand their answers (low ecological validity).

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Strengths of Primary Data

Authentic + specifically obtained for the particular investigation.

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Limitations of Primary Data

Time consuming (planning + preparation), expensive (resources) and requires effort.

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Strengths of Secondary Data

Less time + effort needed as data already exists.

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Limitations of Secondary Data

Data may be inaccurate, outdated, incomplete or not specific for the investigation.

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Likert Scale

Respondent indicates their (dis)agreement with a statement (1-5 scale).

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Rating Scale

Respondent indicates a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic.

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Fixed choice question/option

A list of possible options + respondents indicate those that apply to them.

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Structured Interview

Predetermined questions in fixed order (formal).

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Unstructured Interview

Open-ended questions in any order, added or missed (informal).

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Semi-structured Interview

Predetermined questions (formal), follow-up questions can be asked (informal).

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Research Methods (AS Level)

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