Psychopathology

Statistical infrequency

Behaviour that is rarely seen is said to be 'abnormal'. Anything relatively 'usual' or often seen, is said to be 'normal'. E.g. IQ is 'normally distributed'.

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Strength of statistical infrequency

Has real life application- all assessment of mental disorders include comparison to statistical norms. Itellectual disability disorder demonstrates how statistical infrequency can be used. So it's a useful part of clinical assessment

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Limitation of statistical infrequency

Unusual characteristics can be positive, if few people have a behaviour it's 'abnormal' but doesn't mean they need treatment. IQ scores over 130 are as unusual as under 70 but not regarded as undesirable- means it should never be used alone in diag.

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Deviation from social norms

Abnormality is based on social context. Behaving in a different way to the expected is 'abnormal'. Societies make judgements about what's 'normal'.

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Strength of deviation from SM

Practical application- APD is failure to conform to lawful and cultureally normative behaviour. Therefore a psychopath is abnormal as they deviate from social norms-lack empathy.

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Limitation of deviation from SM

Social norms are culturaly relative. Behaviour seen as abnormal in one culture may not be in another culture. E.g. hearing voices is socially accepted in some cultures (communicating with ancestors)-problem for a culture within another culture.

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Failure to function adequately

Inability to cope with everyday living and dealing with regular demands of life. E.g. washing, holding down a job etc.

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Signs of 'failure to cope'

No longer conforming to impersonal rules e.g maintaining personal space. And behaving in a way that's irrational and dangerous.

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Strength of failure to function adequately

It recognises the patient's perspective. It's difficult to assess but acknowledges the patient's experiences which is important as they may need help.

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Limitation of failure to function adequately

It's a subjective judgement. This is bad as a patient may say they're distressed but not judged as suffering. There are methods of making it more objective (checklists/functioning scale) but principle remains whether psychiatrists have right to judge

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Deviation from ideal mental health

Looks at what makes someone 'normal' and 'psychologically healthy', then can indentify anyone who deviates from this ideal.

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Jahoda's criteria

1) No symptoms/distress 2) Rational/accurate perception of self world 3) We self actualise 4) Can cope with stress 5) Good self esteem 6) Can successfully work & enjoy our leisure.

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Strength of deviation from IMH

It is comprehensive, covers broad range of criteria fro mental health and make it a good tool for thinking about mental health. It covers most of the reasons someone would seek help from mental health services.

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Limitation of deviation from IMH

Unrealistically high standard for mental health. Very few people attain all criteria so this approach would see most people as abnormal. However, it makes people aware of the benefits of seeking help to improve thier mental health.

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Behavioural symptoms of phobias

Panic- crying , screaming, running away. Avoidance- try not to make any contact with phobic stimulus.

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Emotional symptoms of phobias

Anxiety and fear- immediate response. Unreasonable responses- disproportionate to the threat posed.

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Cognitive symptoms of phobias

Selective attention to phobic stimulus- hard to look away, can't concentrate on other tasks. Irrational beliefs- e.g with social phobias, people may think 'i must always sound intelligent'

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Behavioural symptoms of depression

Reduced activity levels- Lack of energy, may not even be able to get out bed. Disruption to sleep or eating behaviour- Insomnia or hypersomnia, appetite may increase or decrease.

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Emotional symptoms of depression

Lowered mood- often describe themselves as worthles or empty. Anger- self harming behaviour

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Cognitive symptoms of depression

Poor concentration- unable to stick with a task or may find simple decision making very hard. Absolutest thinking- 'black and white thinking', whe a situation in unfortunate it's seen as an absolute disaster

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Behavioural symtoms of OCD

Compulsions- carried out in ritualistic way e.g repeatedly washing hands. Avoidance- stay away from situations that trigger anxiety e.g avoid any germs

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Emotional symptoms of OCD

Anxiety and distress- obesseive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening and anxiety can be overwhelming. Guilt and disgust- irrational guilt e.g. over minor issue or disgust toward oneself or something external like dirt.

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Cognitive symptoms of OCD

Obsessive thoughts- e.g recurring, intrusive thoughts about being contaminated by dirt or germs. Insight into excessive anxiety- awareness that thoughts and behaviours are irrational, sufferers experience catastrophic thoughts and are over aware.

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Behavioural approach to explaining phobias

Two-process model: phobias are learned by classical conditioning and then maintained by operant conditioning.

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Acquisition of phobia by classical conditioning

UCS triggers fear response (fear=UCR) e.g. being bitten creates anxiety. NS is associated with UCS e.g being bitten by dog (dog previously didn't cause anxiety). NS becomes CS, producing fear (CR). Dog becomes CS causing CR of anxiety after the bite.

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Watson and Raynor-Little Albert; conditioned fear

When Albert played with a white rat, a loud noise was made (UCS) which caused a fear response. After several times of the noise and rat being paired together, Albert showed a fear response (CR) when he saw the rat (CS).

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Generalisation

Little Albert showed fear in response to to other white, furry objects e.g fur coast and image of santa claus.

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Maintenance by operant conditioning

Negative reinforcement- an individual produces a behaviour that avoids the phobic stimulus. They escape the anxiety that would've been experienced, this negatively reinforces the behaviour so the phobias is maintained.

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Strength of two-process model

Has good explanatory power- goes beyond watson and raynor's simple classical conditioning explanation. Has important implications for therapy-if patient is prevented from avoiding phobia then phobic behaviour will decline (flooding).

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Limitation of two-process model

Incomplete explanation of phobias- some aspects of phobias require further explanations e.g we acquire phobias of things that were a danger in our evolutionary past, this is 'biological preparedness'. This is a problem for the two process model.

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Psychopathology

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