Memory || Research

Attkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

Developed the Multi-Store model of memory which has three main stores - sensory, short-term, and long-term

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Joseph Jacobs (1887)

Digit Span Technique - measured the longest sequence of items recalled accurately at least 50% of the time...average number 5-9

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Crowder (1993)

Found that the SR only retains information in the iconic store for a few milliseconds, but for 2-3s within the echoic store

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George Miller (1956)

Magic number 7 +/- 2...supports Jacobs. Also looked at the idea of chunking

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Herb Simon (1974)

Tested the idea of chunking and said that whilst it does work, the bigger the chunks are the less you can remember

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Peterson and Peterson (1959)

Developed the Brown Peterson Technique which aims to test the duration of STM. Found that all infomation was gone by 30 seconds

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Sperling (1960)

Flashed a 3x4 grid of letters on a screen for 1/20th of a second; asked Ps to recall the letters of one row. Recall of letters in the row was high, which suggests all the information was originally there, suggesting the SR has a large capacity

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Walsh and Thompson (1978)

Found that the iconic sensory store has an average duration of 500 milliseonds, which decreases as individuals get older. This suggests duration is limited and age dependent

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Conrad (1964)

Visually presented students with letters one at a time. Found that letters that are acoustically similar (rhyming) are harder to recall from STM than the acoustically dissimilar letters. Suggests STM is acoustic

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Baddeley (1966)

Wanted to find out whether acoustic coding is used in STM and semantic coding is used in LTM. Found STM depends mainly on acoustic and LTM is semantic

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Tulving (1972)

Made the distinction between 2 types of LTM: Episodic and Semantic. Different parts of the brain are active (studied himself and his wife, took radioactive gold)

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Cohen and Squire (1980)

Established the declarative and procedural knowledge divisions of long term memory

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Standing et al (1970)

Found that on a test of LTM using recognition of pictures, 90% of 2560 pictures were remembered

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Solso (1991)

Analogy with computer. We only use a fraction of the brains power and capacity

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Anokhin (1973)

Estimated that the number of possible neural connections in the human brain is 1 followed by 10.5 km of noughts

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Bahrick et al (1975)

Tested the duration of very long term memory, and found that it does exist, and the duration could perhaps be forever, however recognition is better than recall

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Deese (1959)

A non-presented word was mistakenly recalled by participants as it came from the same semantic field. This is known as the False Memory Phenomenon

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Phineas Gage (1848)

Accident where tamping iron when through his frontal lobe. Can be used to show that the frontal lobes are not specifically linked with memory

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Clive Wearing

Viral infection attacked parts of his brain, damaging the hippocampus. Still had his procedural memory but not his episodic - shows that different areas of the brain are responsible for different aspects of memory

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KF (1970s)

Experinced brain damage to his left occipiatal lobe after a motorcycle accident. His LTM wasn't damaged, however his capacity of STM was. Remembers visual and pictured information better than words and audio

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Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Created the Working Memory Model, which views short term memory as an active store, used to hold information that is a work in progress

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De Groot (1966)

Expert chess players have a superb STM for the position of chess pieces on the board, provided they are organised according to the rules of chess. If organised in a random way, the chess plays are no better than non-chess players

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Morris et al (1985)

Show that STM is an ACTIVE store used to hold information

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Logie et al (1992)

Show that STM is an ACTIVE store used to hold information

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Groome (1999)

Compared the Working Model of Memory to a computer screen - what you see i the STM, the episodic memory is the computer's memory

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Miyake et al (2000)

Research shows that the CE is more complex than a single functioning unit. They found that 3 different functions were used when carrying out one task - inhibition, shifting, updating functions. Used the Stroop Task (brain training colour task)

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Wilson et al (1996) & Chamberlain (2003)

Study brain-damanged individuals whose CE is impaired. They suffer from sysexecutive syndrome and show that the model is more complex than thought. Tesed using behaviour assessment of the syndrome - often have trouble holding down jobs

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Stuss and Alexander (2007)

Identified 3 different parts of the frontal lobes, suggesting different parts to the CE

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Gathercole and Baddelely (1990)

Children with a deficient phonological loop often have problems with reading. Found that later in life these children had difficulty in deciding whether words rhymed

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Smith and Jonides (1997)

Gave participants visual and spatial tasks to do. Measured their brain activity during a task. More activity in the right hemisphre in spatical tasks, and left during the visual one - suggests the visuo-spatial sketchpad is more complex

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Baddeley and Hitch (1977)

Ps who played a varying number of rugby union games had to remember as many of the teams they had played against as possible. Looked at how recall was affected by the no. of games played. Forgetting was due more to the no. of games played than time

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Abernethy (1940)

Found that Ps after learning some material recalled it less well when tested by an unfamiliar teacher in an unfamiliar room than Ps who were tested by a familiar teacher in a familiar room

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Overton (1972)

Recalling information learned when drunk was better if the information had been learned when drunk rather than sober

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Gillian Cohen (1996)

“Memory is influenced by a lifetime of past experiences, by history, by culture, by current motives and emotions, by intelligence and personality traits, by future goals and plans”

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DNA Testing

Due to DNA testing, there have now been 334 post-conviction DNA exonerations in the US – most of those exonerated have already served 10years +

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Cotton Case

Man was wrongly accused for the **** of a woman and convicted based on EWT. Shows that it isn't always accurate. 233rd innocent American freed

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Barlett (1932)

The war of the ghosts - proved that we use our schemas to reconstruct memories

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Larry Mayes

100th innocent person freed after 23 years

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Tuckey and Brewer (2003)

Obtained information about people’s bank robbery schema. Had eyewitnesses recall the details of a simulated crime they observed – particularly ambiguous information. Ambiguous information as being consistent with their crime schema = memory errors

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Geiselman et al (1985)

Developed the cognitive interview, with the aim to improve interviewing techniques and improve the reliability of EWT

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Amina Memom (2010)

conducted a meta-analysis, using 57 studies involving adults, children, the elderly, and learning disabled people. Found that the CI proved significantly more accurate detail, MCI producing more confabulations and inaccurate details

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Centofanti and Reece (2006)

Eyewitnesses watched video of bank robbery followed by neutral or misleading information. 35% more correct details were recalled with the CI than with a structured interview. Negative effects of misleading information on EWT were unchanged

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Loftus (1979) (1987)

Weapon Focus Effect - carried out the office situation and the bank situation

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Pickel (1999)

Found no evidence of weapon focus when eyewitnesses saw someone pointing a gun in a situation where guns were expected

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Valentine et al (2003)

Considered evidence from over 300 line-ups and found the presence of a weapon had NO EFFECT on the probability of an EW identifying the suspect

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Deffenbacher et al (2004)

Carried out a meta-analysis which looked at the effects of anxiety and stress on face identification and found that stress and anxiousness can reduce the accuracy of the identification

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Yerkes-Dodson Law

Inverted U Theory of Arousal: This impacts on performance

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Bothwell (1987)

Found that high stress and high neuroticism created the worst memory recall

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Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction Situation

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Loftus and Zanni (1975)

Film of a car accident shown. Some eyewitnesses were asked “ Did you see a broken headlight?” 7% said yes Others were asked “Did you see the broken headlight?” 17% said yes

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Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Interviewed people that had witnessed a crime where one person was shot dead and the other person was injured. These interviews (months later) and interviews given to police immediately after were analysed. EW accounts were shown to be very accurate

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Memory || Research

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