Marking a term by modifying it (e.g. with an affix): master/mistress, actor/actress etc.
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Generic masculine pronouns
E.g. history of mankind
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Trudgill (1974)
"ng" word ending: Women of each class use the prestige variant more than men of the same class. Using the nonstandard variable is not just a working-class thing it’s also a male thing.
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Cheshire (1982)
Supported Trudgill's findings: boys use non-standard forms more than girls, suggested they did this as a way of converging w/other members of their social groups
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Lakoff (1975)
Female lang lacked authority compared to men: women use more tag Qs, hedges, intensifiers, empty adjectives etc.
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Tannen (1990)
Difference model: status Vs Support, independence Vs Intimacy, Advice vs Understanding, Information Vs Feelings, Orders Vs Proposals, Conflict Vs Compromise.
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Fishman (1983)
Dominance model: argued that tag questions are used by females to start conversation and to continue dialogue, calls this 'conversational shitwork'.
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Hyde
Male and females are similar on most variables - there are more similarities between male and female language than differences and any variations in speech could be down to age, occupation, status, class etc
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Zimmerman and West (1975)
Found that 95% of all interruptions in mixed-sex conversations came from men. They concluded that men constrained women and dominated these conversations.
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