Criminal Psychology part 3

What is the defensible space theory?

Suggests that people in a community help with crime prevention because they protect spaces they feel they have invested in

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Who created the defensible space theory?

Newman 1972

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What are the 5 factors suggested in making a defensible space?

Territoriality, Natural surveillance, Image, Milieu, Safe adjourning areas

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What did Newman look at? General info about these areas

2 projects in NY designed for those on low incomes called Van Dyke and Brownsville. Crime rates and vandalism were higher in Van Dyke than Brownesville. Both projects had about 288 people per acre (Social density was similar). Quasi experiment.

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Differences between Van Dyke and Brownsville designs?

Brownsville: built around a courtyard, common entrance easily visible from flats (surveillance), residents showed more care for communal places, more likely to let their children out + kept doors open to keep an eye on them, good sense of community.

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How did Newman carry out his experiment in Van Dyke and Brownsville?

Tape recorded people arguing + played it in the corridors.

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Newman results: Brownsville Vs Van Dyke

Brownsville: Newman was challenged before he even got into the building to set up his equipment and people cam out of their flats to see what was going on. Van Dyke: People turned their TVs up as the row intensified.

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What did Newman suggest should be done when designing projects based on these results?

Communal areas should be designed to include semi-private areas to encourage social interaction, all areas should appear to "belong" to someone, interior space should be visible from the street, projects should be kept small + fewer large families.

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What is zero tolerance policing based on? 3 key principles

1) Address all types of criminal acts. 2) Police officers should be confident to tackle even lowest level crimes. 3) Low level crimes can be tackled with low intensity, humane methods.

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Zero tolerance policing in New York

As arrests for misdemeanors increased, subway crimes of all types decreased dramatically. '94: crack down on public drinking, prostitution etc. and by '96 crime = down 40%, murder rate = halved.

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Zero tolerance policing in Hartlepool

The overall crime rate doubled in 12 yrs leading up to '94 + burglary rate tripled. Police officers were told to show compassion to those w/mental health problems + were made aware of low level offenders. Crime decreased 27%, car theft by 56% in 2yrs

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What did Pollard ('89) and Pratt et al (2010) say about zero tolerance policing?

Zero tolerance policing can have negative effects such as causing tension between the police and the community. Pollard: While there may be short-term improvement, communities may be alienated long-term. e.g. stop and search (racist+intrusive)

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Who did Pollard suggest could dissuade individuals from committing crime?

Numerous public services e.g. schools, waste management, community mental health teams and social services.

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What is the Broken Windows Theory? Who suggested it?

Wilson + Kelling: disorderly neighbourhoods lead to serious crimes.

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What are the two types of disorder?

Physical: graffiti, vandalism, litter, broken buildings, uncared for gardens. Social: Sale + use of illegal drugs, gangs, prostitution, public drinking.

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How do disorderly neighbourhoods influence crime?

Residents perceive serious crime is on the rise, creating fear. They then fail to challenge minor disorder. This leads to a lack of social cohesion so people remain in their homes + more serious crime develops as a result (less surveillance)

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Why is mutual surveillance a crime deterrant?

large numbers of people may challenge disorderly behaviour or call the police, esp. when surrounded by others.

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Describe Zimbardos research 1969 BWT

Car w/its hood up was put in the Bronx + Palo Alto, within 10mins the car in the Bronx was attacked. Car was left alone in PA for over a week until Zimbardo smashed it with a sledgehammer, it was then destroyed.

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Effects of Zimbardos research BWT

Vandalism can occur anywhere once communal barriers are lowered by actions that seem to signal no one cares.

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What strategies did Wilson + Kelling suggest could help communities maintain order?

Employ private security guards, employ off duty police officers, encourage officers to use public transport.

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What did Wilson and Kelling conclude?

Foot patrol officers dealing with minor examples of disorder could play a vital role in preventing serious crime. Features of neighbourhoods influence crime rates.

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Application of BWT?

Mid 70s: Safe and Clean Neighbourhoods Program, didn't reduce crime but residents perceived a reduction in crime.

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Sureveillance as a crime prevention strategy?

Brown '95: Burglaries reduced 56%, criminal damage was reduced 34% after CCTV was introduced. (+Neighbourhood watch is an application)

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What strategies did Clarke ('97) suggest to prevent crime?

Target Hardening: makes crime harder to commit. Access control: Difficult for criminals to get into places to commit. Stimulating conscience: Putting up signs. Denying benefits: make crime less 'worth it'. Facilitating compliance: Provide bins etc.

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Problems with situational crime prevention strategies?

Displacement - The target of the crime shifts e.g. from traditional theft to identity theft. Crime can simply move into other areas. Some policies may have racial/gender bias. Some policies may increase police work load.

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Bowers et al (2004)

Overall 3000 gates installed. Quasi exp. Compared the effects of alley-gating on burglary rates in L'pool w/adjacent areas - found burglary rates were reduced 37% compared to controls (875 burglaries).

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Problems found by Bowers et al (2004) (alleygating)

Installing gates = problematic as it required permission from all residents, negotiation of public rights of way, bespoke manufacture + distribution of keys. Displacement - Increase in burglary rates in other areas. Doesn't deal with causes of crime.

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Farrington et al (2002): General study

Compared 2 boot camp style systems. Thorn Cross Training Centre: Activities 16 hours a day (incl. physical training + physical drills). Thorn Cross: Similar programmes.

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Farrington et al (2002): Results - Punishment and Reform

In Thorn Cross the exp group took longer to reoffend and committed signif. fewer crimes.

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Farrington et al (2002): Explanation of results - Punishment and Reform

Probably due to the education, employment, mentoring and care given rather than the drilling + physical training. REJECTS the view that making prisons stricter will reduce reoffending.

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Effectiveness of imprisonment - UK recidivism

47% of adults will be reconvicted within a year of being released (higher for children), if prison was effective we wouldn't expect to see high recidivism rates because the criminal would have been deterred from reoffending.

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Liebling (1995)

Multiple family breakdowns, freq. violence, placement w/local authority (care), bullying, sexual abuse, prev. episodes of self-harm.

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Dooley (1990)

Mental illness, history of psychiatric contact, substance abuse, history of self-harm, loss of social contact, relationship difficulties, victimisation by other inmates and difficulty coping w/prison regime.

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Gillis and Nafekh (2005)

Investigated programme by the Canadian Correctional Service where offenders completed a programme w/tips on how to look for employment+on-the-job placements. Compared 2 grps of men+women on conditional release. 23525 ppl matched (95/5 m/f) quasi-exp.

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Gillis and Nafekh (2005) What were ppts matched on

Gender, risk level, release year, sentence length, family/marital relations + substance abuses.

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Gillis and Nafekh (2005) Results

70% in the employment scheme successfully completed their conditional release period compared to 55% who were unemployed. Employed: 30% returned to prison after abt 37 months. Unemployed: 45% returned after abt 11 months.

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Gillis and Nafekh (2005) Conclusions

Planned work programmes enabling prisoners to hold down a job is one way of reducing recidivism + more employment based programmes should be provided for prisoners.

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What are the two main models to explain violence in prisons?

1) Dispositional explanation/importation model. 2) Deprivation model.

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What is the Dispositional Model/the Importation model?

Offenders enter prison with dispositional factors (personality traits + attitudes) that cause aggression.

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Evidence supporting the Dispositional Model

Keller + Wang (2005): prison violence happens more in prisons with troublesome inmates. Harer + Steffensmeier ('96): 58 male US prisons + found black inmates had higher levels of violence than whites -> 'cultural norms condoning violence'

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Evaluation of the evidence supporting the Dispositional Model

McCorke ('95): Model fails to suggest how to manage/reduce violence. The model = nature not nurture + ignores the environmental situation of inmates (reductionist). Gender bias (androcentric view of violence).

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What is the Deprivation Model?

Suggests that it is the situational factors of the prison that account for aggression (e.g. overcrowding)

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Evidence supporting the Deprivation Model

Harer + Steffensmeier ('96): suggest that an inmates aggressive behaviour is a response to problems + frustrations caueed by adjusting to the loss of freedom + the isolation, boredom + loneliness of being in prison. Stanford Prison Experiment '73.

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Stanford Prison exp: Aim/hypothesis

No specific hypothesis, other than the general one that assignment to the role of 'guard' or 'prisoner' would result in a difference in reactions, behaviour and emotions.

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Stanford Prison exp: Experimental Design

Independent Measures

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Stanford Prison exp: Sample details

21 ppts from initial pool of 75. All male, largely middle class, white (except for one oriental ppt) and were all in Stanford during the Summer. 2ppts on standby - 1 dropped out. All ppts scored within normal range of population on range of scales.

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Stanford Prison exp: Sampling method

Self selected - ppts responded to a newspaper advert asking for volunteers to take part in a study of 'prison life' for $15 a day.

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Stanford Prison exp: Physical aspects of the prison

35ft square section of basement corridor @ Stanford Uni, 3 cells 6x9 foot w/steel barred, black painted doors w/all furniture removed except for cot (mattress, pillow + sheet) for each prisoner (3 to a cell)

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Stanford Prison exp: Operational details

Prisoners remained in prison for 24 hours a day + guards worked on a 3-man 8 hour shift rota

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Stanford Prison exp: Role instructions

Ppts signed a contract guaranteeing min. adequete diet, clothing, housing + medical care, would be under suveillance and would give up some of their basic civil rights (except physical abuse).

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Stanford Prison exp: Role instructions for guards

Told to 'maintain the reasonable degree of order within the prison necessary for its effective functioning' (not specific)

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Stanford Prison Exp: Uniform

Guard: plain khaki shirts + trousers, whistle, police night stick + reflective sunglasses (eye contact was therefore impossible). Prisoners: Loosely fitting smock w/no underwear + nylon hair cover (reduces individuality)

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Stanford Prison exp: Induction procedure

All ppts 'arrested' by Palo Alto City Police Dept. and went through standard procedure (fingerprinted, ID'd etc.)

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Stanford Prison exp: Administrative procedure

All prisoners only known by their number (depersonalisation), given 3 bland meals daily, 3 supervised toilet trips daily, 2 hours daily privelege (reading/letterwriting). 'Count' 3 times a day.

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Stanford Prison exp: Count

Initially this lasted about 10 mins to test whether prisoners knew the rules and their numbers, but this increased in duration until some lasted several hours.

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Stanford Prison exp: Data collection methods

Videotaping, audio, rating scales, individual difference scales, personal observations.

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Stanford Prison exp: Results - Guards + prisoners

Guards+prisoners: tendency towards increased negativity, interactions tended to be hostile, confrontive +dehumanising. Commands = most freq verbal behaviour + most interactions = impersonal.

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Stanford Prison exp: Results - Guards vs Prisoners

Prisoners immediately adopted a passive response mode while guards assumed a v. active initiating role in all interactions.

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Stanford Prison exp: Results - Prisoners

Expressed intentions to do harm to themselves and others more frequently. 5 prisoners had to be released due to extreme emotional depression, crying, rage and anxiety.

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Stanford Prison exp: Results - guards

Many guards remained on duty voluntarily for hours without extra pay (enjoyed being guards)

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Stanford Prison exp: Conclusions

Negative behaviour were not a product of putting bad personalities in an environment, but the result of the 'pathological' situation which distorted the behaviour of normal individuals. Rejects the dispositional hypothesis.

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Stanford Prison exp: Conclusions (prev research)

Agrees w/Mischel's theory that the power of situational variables shape complex behaviour + agrees w/Milgram that evil acts aren't necessarily the deeds of evil men, but more social forces.

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Why might imprisonment lead to high rates of recidivism?

due to the effects it has on a person's life, leads to isolation from friends, family and the community + makes it harder to get a job in the future.

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Porter (2009)

In some cases, treatment programmes like anger management can actually make the offender better at manipulating others and securing early release.

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McCorke (1995)

Violence is due to the management of prisons. Found there was a connection between violence and environmental factors e.g. overcrowding and living conditions.

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Other forms of punishment?

Restorative Justice, Anger Management, Community Sentences

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RJ?

Focuses on the need of the victim , both parties need to agree to it, gives victim a chance to gain an explanation as to why the crime happened to them

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Sherman and Strang (2007)

Suggested that RJ works in property and violence offences as it is possible to identify a personal victim. RJ was shown to reduce victim's post-traumatic stress symptoms + RJ reduced repeat offending where it was used instead of a prison sentence.

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Anger Management?

Stage 1: Cognitive preparation (offender identifies triggers) Stage 2: Skills Acquisition (Offender learns different relaxation techniques) Stage 3: Application practice (skills prev. learnt are put into practice)

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Novaco (1975)

Suggested that some offences occur when offenders express violent + antisocial behaviour towards inappropriate targets. If offenders can control this anger, there should be a reduction in violent behaviour in prison + when they're released.

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CALM

Controlling Anger and Learning to Manage it: 24 2-hour sessions, targets men (cannot be applied to women)

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Feindler (1994)

Anger management training led to improved self-control , improved problem solving and a reduction in offending young men

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Howitt (2009)

Anger management may be limited in its effectiveness as some violent offences are not motivated by anger but in order to achieve specific goals.

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Rice (1997)

Psychopaths given such training showed increased rates of reoffending (manipulation)

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Heseltine (2010)

Positive correlation between offenders willingness to participate and successful outcomes of programmes (effectiveness of programme is low if offender is low in motivation to participate)

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Ireland (2000)

CALM: 50 prisoners + 37 controls men. Natural exp. 92% of CALM ppts showed improvement in at least 1 'angry measure'. 9% of ptts behaviour deteriorated, though.

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Community sentences?

Report suggested that recidivism rates for community sentences remain high and community sentences lack credibility as an effective punishment. Report recommended stronger community sentences.

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Examples of stronger community sentences?

Community sentences to be extended from 6 to 12 months + involve 5 days of hard work w/job seeking, location monitoring, RJ, electric monitoring and curfews

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Criminal Psychology part 3

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