Controversies in Psychology C3

Non-human animals - introduction
People have very strong _______ about how we view and treat animals. This is apparent when it comes to using animals for ________ in psychology. Is it ________? Should animals be given the same ethical _____ as humans?

People have very strong opinions about how we view and treat animals. This is apparent when it comes to using animals for research in psychology. Is it justifiable? Should animals be given the same ethical rights as humans?

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Speciesism
P: No moral basis for putting the interests of one species over another, this is speciesism which is a form of ___________
E: ______s principles of equality...

P: No moral basis for putting the interests of one species over another, this is speciesism which is a form of discrimination
E: Singer's principles of equality...

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holds that all sentient creatures have an equal interest in avoiding suffering so speciesism should be avoided. However animal testing may be permissible when potential _______ are high and research can't be carried out on humans, this is a ___________ po

holds that all sentient creatures have an equal interest in avoiding suffering so speciesism should be avoided. However animal testing may be permissible when potential benefits are high and research can't be carried out on humans, this is a utalitarian p

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E: Singer argues the use of animals can be unethical unless the __________ process is used. This is when the researcher gets the maximum benefit while minimising potential harm.

E: Singer argues the use of animals can be unethical unless the utalitarian process is used. This is when the researcher gets the maximum benefit while minimising potential harm.

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EXT P: Some evidence suggests animals are sentient and suffer psychological harm
E: ____ found rats who had been previously soaked were quicker to learn how to free a caged soaked rat.

EXT P: Some evidence suggests animals are sentient and suffer psychological harm
E: Sato found rats who had been previously soaked were quicker to learn how to free a caged soaked rat.

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Rats chose to free a distressed caged rat before obtaining a reward of _________. Suggests that rats are able to experience _______ and value other rats over rewards.

Rats chose to free a distressed caged rat before obtaining a reward of chocolate. Suggests that rats are able to experience empathy and value other rats over rewards.

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E: Due to this, Regan takes the ________ view. This is that the cost to animals can never be justified in terms of human benefit, animals have the same ______ as humans and so their life should be ______ in the same way.

E: Due to this, Regan takes the absolutist view. This is that the cost to animals can never be justified in terms of human benefit, animals have the same rights as humans and so their life should be valued in the same way.

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P: Being speciest doesn't cause ethical issues
E: ____ argues we have a special duty of care to further the welfare of our own species. It would be unethical not to do research on animals if it could be of any _______ to humans.

P: Being speciest doesn't cause ethical issues
E: Gray argues we have a special duty of care to further the welfare of our own species. It would be unethical not to do research on animals if it could be of any benefit to humans.

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E: Conducting research on animals doesn't require the __________ process as our own species is more highly valued. Speciesism isn't equivalent to ________ or ________ so it's not a problem.

E: Conducting research on animals doesn't require the utalitarian process as our own species is more highly valued. Speciesism isn't equivalent to racism or sexism so it's not a problem.

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Comparitive/ethological psychology
P: Comparitive psychology, the study of non-human animals in controlled conditions, causes ethical issues
E: ______'s monkeys

P: Comparitive psychology, the study of non-human animals in controlled conditions, causes ethical issues
E: Harlow's monkeys

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the ____ mother had a bottle attached for providing food, the ____ mother provided comfort and security. When frightened, the infant monkeys clung to their ____ mother.

the wire mother had a bottle attached for providing food, the cloth mother provided comfort and security. When frightened, the infant monkeys clung to their cloth mother.

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Disputes Freud's theories suggesting _____ is everything to infants, instead suggests that infant attachments are based on _______ and _______.
E: Unnatural conditions caused monkeys distress and _________ harm, comparitive is unethical

Disputes Freud's theories suggesting food is everything to infants, instead suggests that infant attachments are based on comfort and security.
E: Unnatural conditions caused monkeys distress and psychological harm, comparitive is unethical

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P: Ethological research, research on animals in their natural environment, is more ethical
E: _______ left some goose eggs to be hatched by mother goose, he also hatched some in an incubator.

P: Ethological research, research on animals in their natural environment, is more ethical
E: Lorenz left some goose eggs to be hatched by mother goose, he also hatched some in an incubator.

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He found that the baby goslings _________ to him or mother goose. Even when he put them all under a box and lifted it, they __________ to either of them. If the infants didn't imprint within __-__ hours of hatching, they would fail to form attachment and

He found that the baby goslings imprinted to him or mother goose. Even when he put them all under a box and lifted it, they separated to either of them. If the infants didn't imprint within 12-17 hours of hatching, they would fail to form attachment and

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Similar to Bowlby's claim that a lack of ___________ in early life has long-term consequences for child development
E: Ethological is ethical because it studies animals in a way which doesn't affect their __________.

Similar to Bowlby's claim that a lack of attachment in early life has long-term consequences for child development
E: Ethological is ethical because it studies animals in a way which doesn't affect their behaviour.

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Use as a therapeutic device
P: Benefits to use animals as a form of psychological therapy, an ethical way
E: Animal __________ Therapy helps disturbed or socially isolated individuals

P: Benefits to use animals as a form of psychological therapy, an ethical way
E: Animal Assisted Therapy helps disturbed or socially isolated individuals

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animal used as a 'behavioural __________' as the person learns appropriate ways to behave and communicate with the animal, these skills are __________ to interactions with people

animal used as a 'behavioural facilitator' as the person learns appropriate ways to behave and communicate with the animal, these skills are transferred to interactions with people

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eg. person interacts with animal physically by _________ them, then move onto ______ interactions such as "sit". Where painful experiences are explored, the presence of an animal can make the environment less ______.

eg. person interacts with animal physically by petting them, then move onto verbal interactions such as "sit". Where painful experiences are explored, the presence of an animal can make the environment less tense.

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EXT: ________ and ___ reviewed 28 studies into AAT and found all reported beneficial effects for people with _________ disorders and developmental disorders

EXT: Friedman and Son reviewed 28 studies into AAT and found all reported beneficial effects for people with emotional disorders and developmental disorders

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E: Use of animals in research is developing beyond using them as ________. They also provide a great level of _______ to humans in society.

E: Use of animals in research is developing beyond using them as participants. They also provide a great level of support to humans in society.

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P: Criticism of the quality of AAT research
E: ______ reviewed 14 studies of therapy involving horses and found methodological flaws such as small ______ sizes and no ______ groups. This doesn't allow for valid comparisons between benefits of AAT compared

P: Criticism of the quality of AAT research
E: Anestis reviewed 14 studies of therapy involving horses and found methodological flaws such as small sample sizes and no control groups. This doesn't allow for valid comparisons between benefits of AAT compar

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E: More high quality evidence is needed into the ___________ of AAT beore it is widely used in _______ psychology

E: More high quality evidence is needed into the effectiveness of AAT before it is widely used in clinical psychology

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BPS guidelines
P: Researchers have to adhere to the wider laws of animal research, and the guidelines of BPS, so these are ethical in protecting animals

P: Researchers have to adhere to the wider laws of animal research, and the guidelines of BPS, so these are ethical in protecting animals

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E: Guidelines indicate "members of society are reminded of their general obligation to _____ or _______ discomfort to living animals"
- should be aware of animals past ___________, social animals should be provided with companions

E: Guidelines indicate "members of society are reminded of their general obligation to avoid or minimise discomfort to living animals"
- should be aware of animals past experiences, social animals should be provided with companions

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- should be aware of current __________ governing animal use
- should seek to ______ animals with suitable alternatives, refine _________ to cause less suffering, ______ animals used (3Rs)

- should be aware of current legislation governing animal use
- should seek to replace animals with suitable alternatives, refine procedures to cause less suffering, reduce animals used (3Rs)

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EXT: Animals ________ _________ Act 1986 requires research with non-human animals is only permitted by licensed researchers on licensed projects in licensed laboratories. Animal ______ Act 2022 recognises animals as sentient creatures

EXT: Animals Scientific Procedures Act 1986 requires research with non-human animals is only permitted by licensed researchers on licensed projects in licensed laboratories. Animal Welfare Act 2022 recognises animals as sentient creatures

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E: Range of _________ and ____ that psychologists must adhere to protects the welfare of animals, so animal research is ethical

E: Range of guidelines and laws that psychologists must adhere to protects the welfare of animals, so animal research is ethical

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P: BPS guidelines and laws aren't effective in protecting animals
E: _________ reviewed the 3Rs among studies. Only 59% referred to _______ of animals used in procedures, researchers aren't considering reducing animals or refining procedures

P: BPS guidelines and laws aren't effective in protecting animals
E: Kilkenny reviewed the 3Rs among studies. Only 59% referred to number of animals used in procedures, researchers aren't considering reducing animals or refining procedures

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EXT: The Scientific Procedures Act doesn't apply to all animals, only __________ and _______
E: The guidelines may be good in principle but only if researchers are ___________ to following them.

EXT: The Scientific Procedures Act doesn't apply to all animals, only vertebrates and octopus
E: The guidelines may be good in principle but only if researchers are committed to following them.

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Conclusion ideas:
- behavioural psychologists argue animal research is valuable because it suggests animals and humans learn in ________ ____.
- there are limits to how far we can _________ from animals to humans, so may have limited value

- behavioural psychologists argue animal research is valuable because it suggests animals and humans learn in similar ways
- there are limits to how far we can extrapolate from animals to humans, so may have limited value

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- evidence supporting AAT in clinical psychology is __________
- legislation is changing in the UK to become more _____, but the enforcement of guidelines are not yet ________.

- evidence supporting AAT in clinical psychology is inconclusive
- legislation is changing in the UK to become more strict, but the enforcement of guidelines are not yet consistent.

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Cultural bias - introduction
Psychology aims to provide _______ explanations of human behaviour. But historically, it's been guilty of culture bias. This is a form of ________ where one culture is seen as superior to another. Typically against non-_______

Psychology aims to provide universal explanations of human behaviour. But historically, it's been guilty of culture bias. This is a form of prejudice where one culture is seen as superior to another. Typically against non-Western cultures who are under/mi

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Cultural difference
P: There are main differences between individualist and collectivist cultures
E: ______ and ______ (1995) did a literature review noting differences between these cultures in terms of subjective wellbeing (SWB)

P: There are main differences between individualist and collectivist cultures
E: Myers and Diener (1995) did a literature review noting differences between these cultures in terms of subjective wellbeing (SWB)

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More people in __________ cultures report greater levels of SWB, demonstrating that this culture is more concerned with their personal _____ and individual ________ compared to the other culture.

More people in individualist cultures report greater levels of SWB, demonstrating that this culture is more concerned with their personal needs and individual happiness compared to the other culture.

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EXT: _____ found African-American children score 15 points lower on average than white children on IQ tests. __% of the variation in IQ scores between black and white people is due to genetic factors. __% seen as environmental factors.

Jensen found African-American children score 15 points lower on average than white children on IQ tests. 80% of the variation in IQ scores between black and white people is due to genetic factors. 20% seen as environmental factors.

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E: We should learn from diverse cultures and apply it to psychology. More recently, psychologists are moving away from ________'s cultural differences idea. Now evidence that there are larger _____________ differences than _____________ differences.

E: We should learn from diverse cultures and apply it to psychology. More recently, psychologists are moving away from Hofstede's cultural differences idea. Now evidence that there are larger intra-cultural differences than inter-cultural differences.

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P: Cultural differences are bias in the way data is collected, not reflecting real differences between cultures
E: _____ and ______ (1995) - difference in the way SWB was measured

P: Cultural differences are bias in the way data is collected, not reflecting real differences between cultures
E: Myers and Diener (1995) - difference in the way SWB was measured

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if a questionnaire was used in one of the studies, then this may have been based on ___________ assumptions of what SWB is, making __________ cultures appear different. This is alpha bias - differences are ___________.

if a questionnaire was used in one of the studies, then this may have been based on individualist assumptions of what SWB is, making collectivist cultures appear different. This is alpha bias - differences are exaggerated.

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EXT: Jensens IQ tests are an example of ____ bias. He didn't consider cultural differences in the __________ used and type of intelligence gathered by black and white children. Therefore he wrongly highlighted __________ differences in IQ between the two

EXT: Jensens IQ tests are an example of beta bias. He didn't consider cultural differences in the language used and type of intelligence gathered by black and white children. Therefore he wrongly highlighted biological differences in IQ between the two gr

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E: Cultural bias can have long lasting consequences for society such as reinforcing ______ and __________.

E: Cultural bias can have long lasting consequences for society such as reinforcing racism and discrimination.

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Ethnocentrism
P: Overwhelming bias towards human behaviour theories reflecting Western research
E: Psychologists developed their understanding through ethnocentric __________ and research.

P: Overwhelming bias towards human behaviour theories reflecting Western research
E: Psychologists developed their understanding through ethnocentric textbooks and research.

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Smith and Bond analysed a British textbook:
- __% of studies from North America
- __% of studies were European
- _% of studies from the rest of the world

Smith and Bond analysed a British textbook:
- 66% of studies from North America
- 32% of studies were European
- 2% of studies from the rest of the world

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EXT: psychological findings are unrepresentative on a global scale AND within western culture. ________ suggests psychological knowledge is based on a weird population of westernised, educated people from rich ___________

EXT: psychological findings are unrepresentative on a global scale AND within western culture. Heinrich suggests psychological knowledge is based on a weird population of westernised, educated people from rich democracies

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E: Psychology may claim to understand human behaviour but actually, may only really understand it within a small section of the ___________

E: Psychology may claim to understand human behaviour but actually, may only really understand it within a small section of the population.

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P: Steps have been taking to reduce ethnocentrism in psychology
E: Behaviour and attitudes of each culture is being viewed as equally worth of ______ (cutural relativism).

P: Steps have been taking to reduce ethnocentrism in psychology
E: Behaviour and attitudes of each culture is being viewed as equally worth of respect (cutural relativism).

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Research is now carried out from within the _______ being studied, rather than a British/American psychologist going into the culture and studying it from their ___________ viewpoint

Research is now carried out from within the culture being studied, rather than a British/American psychologist going into the culture and studying it from their ethnocentric viewpoint

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E: A way to overcome ethnocentrism is to conduct _____-________ research.

E: A way to overcome ethnocentrism is to conduct cross-cultural research.

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Cross cultural studies
P: Useful in determining whether a particular behaviour is univeral or varies between cultures
E: _____ used questionnaires on 10047 ppts from 37 cultures

P: Useful in determining whether a particular behaviour is univeral or varies between cultures
E: Buss used questionnaires on 10047 ppts from 37 cultures

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females want to form relationships with males who are _______ and have good _________ prospects so he can provide for her and children. Males attracted to females who are _____ and ______.

females want to form relationships with males who are ambitious and have good financial prospects so he can provide for her and children. Males attracted to females who are young and fertile.

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This was the same across different cultures, suggesting we are biologically determined to look for a ___________ mate, supporting the ___________ explanation of relationship formation.

This was the same across different cultures, suggesting we are biologically determined to look for a reproductive mate, supporting the evolutionary explanation of relationship formation.

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EXT: SZ diagnosis rates are consistently higher in experiences of ________ and ____________ than those who remain in their home nation. Suggesting the stress of being in a minority group in a new country is a factor in SZ.

EXT: SZ diagnosis rates are consistently higher in experiences of migration and marginalisation than those who remain in their home nation. Suggesting the stress of being in a minority group in a new country is a factor in SZ.

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E: These studies are a good way to help us understand what is _____ about human behaviour eg. sexual behaviour is the same in each culture. Helps us understand what is determined by ____________ eg. migration and SZ rates

E: These studies are a good way to help us understand what is innate about human behaviour eg. sexual behaviour is the same in each culture. Helps us understand what is determined by environment eg. migration and SZ rates

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P: Cross cultural studies may not give useful insight into behaviours across cultures
E: ____ acknowledges that rural and less educated people were under represented in his sample. Just because he used a cross cultural sampling frame doesn't mean it's ___

P: Cross cultural studies may not give useful insight into behaviours across cultures
E: Buss acknowledges that rural and less educated people were under represented in his sample. Just because he used a cross cultural sampling frame doesn't mean it's rep

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EXT: Care must be taken not to assume that people from a culture actually represent the _____ of their culture (ecological fallacy). Eg. a person from the UK may be selfess, more like those from ___________ cultures rather than the _____________ culture t

EXT: Care must be taken not to assume that people from a culture actually represent the norms of their culture (ecological fallacy). Eg. a person from the UK may be selfess, more like those from collectivist cultures rather than the individualist culture

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E: In order to get useful insights into similarities and differences in behaviour of different cultures, care must be put into the selection of ________ ____________ ppts.

E: In order to get useful insights into similarities and differences in behaviour of different cultures, care must be put into the selection of culturally representative ppts.

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Historical and social context of cultural bias
P: Research may only tell us about behaviour in the specific era and social group it was carried out
E: ______'s research on effects of maternal deprivation was carried out in the UK in 1944.

P: Research may only tell us about behaviour in the specific era and social group it was carried out
E: Bowlby's research on effects of maternal deprivation was carried out in the UK in 1944.

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However family ________ and ________ has changed since then, so his findings have little relevance in contemporary British society

However family structure and childcare has changed since then, so his findings have little relevance in contemporary British society

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EXT: Freud's contributions are now seen as sexist and unscientific. His penis envy concept made sense when we lived in a society where males were __________ and females had little access to important ___.

EXT: Freud's contributions are now seen as sexist and unscientific. His penis envy concept made sense when we lived in a society where males were dominant and females had little access to important roles.

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E: Psychology must continue to revisit areas of human behaviour and ensure that our understanding is ______ to reflect behaviour in current _______.

E: Psychology must continue to revisit areas of human behaviour and ensure that our understanding is updated to reflect behaviour in current context.

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P: Research and theory from the past may seem irrelevant and outdated, but we must give credit where its due
E: Bowlby contributed to extended _______ hours for patients who's children may be in hospital for prolonged periods

P: Research and theory from the past may seem irrelevant and outdated, but we must give credit where its due
E: Bowlby contributed to extended visiting hours for patients who's children may be in hospital for prolonged periods

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EXT: Freud was the _______ of modern psychology. He was among the first to suggest problems in adulthood can be understood by exploring childhood ___________, and that we can use ______ therapies to treat people.

EXT: Freud was the founder of modern psychology. He was among the first to suggest problems in adulthood can be understood by exploring childhood experiences, and that we can use talking therapies to treat people.

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E: May be easy to dismiss older research as they are culturally bias today, but much of psychology is based on these principles so it therefore still has ______.

E: May be easy to dismiss older research as they are culturally bias today, but much of psychology is based on these principles so it therefore still has value.

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Conclusion ideas:
- ethnocentrism may be inevitable. We are shaped by our cultural __________, therefore studying humans as humans our views will naturally impact our theories, resulting in other cultures being ____________.

- ethnocentrism may be inevitable. We are shaped by our cultural experiences, therefore studying humans as humans our views will naturally impact our theories, resulting in other cultures being misrepresented.

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- new cultures must be researched, the impact of __________ means there are new types of norms
- psychology has a duty to be ___________, relevant, and ______.

- new cultures must be researched, the impact of technology means there are new types of norms
- psychology has a duty to be representative, relevant, and inclusive.

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Controversies in Psychology C3

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