A-Level Biology

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What are organisms composed off?
Cells
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Define Organelles
Cells which performs a special function inside an organism.
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What is an ultrastructure?
Fine detail of the cell - which can be seen through an electron microscope.
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How would you be able to see a cells ultrastructure?
Through a electron microscope.
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What is the diversion of labour?
Where organelle's perform different functions in the cell.
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What is it called when organelle's perform different functions in the cell?
The Diversion of Labour
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The Nuclear is the largest _____ In the cell.
organelle
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Define Organelle
An organelle is one of several structures with specialised functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.
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What is a Organelle suspended in?
Cytoplasm of a Eukaryotic cell.
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What is the nuclear envelope?
Structure composed of two membranes, seperated by fluid, which contain a number of nuclear pores.
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In a nuclear envelope; what do the pores allow?
They can allow relatively large molecules through.
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What does the nucleus nearly contain all of in a cell?
The Cell's genetic material.
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Nucleolus vs Nucleus
The nucleus is the main organelle while the nucleolus is the sub-organelle.
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What does the Nucleolus create? (Not nucleus!)
Ribonucleic Acid and Ribosomes
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What is Ribonucleic Acid?
It is a polymeric molecule which is essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.
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What does RNA Stand for?
Ribonucleic Acid
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Name all four of the RNA bases:
adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U)
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What is a Eukaryotic cell?
Eukaryotic cells are the type of living cells that form the organisms of all of the life kingdoms except monera.
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Define monera (in terms of Eukaryotic cells)
Consists of all Unicellular (single cell) lifeforms and organisms.
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Do Monera cells have a nucleus?
No
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Some examples of Eukaryotic Cells:
Plant cells & Animal cells
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What are ribosomes?
A minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells
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What is a cells largest organelle?
Nucleus
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What does the Nucleus produce?
Ribonucleic Acid and Ribosomes
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What do the Ribonucleic Acid and Ribosomes which are produced by the Nucleus do?
Travel out of nucleus, through nuclear pores, then to the cytoplasm where they are involved in Protein Synthesis.
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What is Protein Synthesis?
Process whre individual cells build their own proteins.
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What is Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?
A network of tubular membranes within the cytoplasm of the cell, occurring with a SMOOTH surface involved in the transport of materials.
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What is Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?
A network of tubular membranes within the cytoplasm of the cell, occurring with a ROUGH surface involved in the transport of materials.
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What does SER stand for?
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
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What does RER stand for?
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
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What is the mitochondria?
The power house of the cell.
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What is a vesicle?
A bubble-like membranous structure that stores and transports cellular products.
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What are Lysosomes?
Lysosomes are membrane bound sacs which contain digestive enzymes used to break down materials.
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What is the Golgi apparatus?
The Golgi Apparatus is a stack of membrane bound flattened sacs; and are responsible for the modification of proteins received from the endoplasmic reticulum.
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What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Some o fit's functions are: the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae && the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus.
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What are chloroplasts?
A plastid in green plant cells which contains chlorophyll and in which photosynthesis takes place.
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What are Vacuoles?
Vacuoles are larger Vesicles, and they are formed by the joining together of many Vesicles.
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What is the function of Vacuoles?
These membrane-bound structures are enclosed compartments filled inorganic and organic molecules, along with water to support the organelle.
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What is the function of the cell membrane?
Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
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Simply; what happens in Ribosomes?
Protein synthesis happens here.
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What is the cell wall?
Strengthens the cell
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What are chlorophyll?
Absorb the light energy for photosynthesis
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What is a permanent vacuole?
A cell filled with cell sap to help keep the cell Turgid (or swollen with water)
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What does Turgid mean?
Enlarged or swollen with water.
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Where is Turgid normally used/process Turgid is most commonly used with?
Inside the permanent Vacuole; where it keeps the cell swollen/enlarged with water.
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Where are 80S Ribosomes present?
Present in Eukaryotes or all higher organisms.
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Where are 70S Ribosomes present?
Present in Prokaryotes (bacterium), Mitochondrion and chloroplast.
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What are the sub-units of 80S Ribosomes?
Consists of 2 subunits, 60S and 40S.
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What are the sub-units of 70S Ribosomes?
Consists of 2 subunits, 50S and 30S.
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What is the % composition of 80S Ribosomes?
The 80S ribosomes are composed of 40% RNA and 60% proteins.
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What is the % composition of 70S Ribosomes?
he 70S ribosomes are composed of 60% RNA and 40% proteins.
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What are flagella?
Flagella are used by cells and unicellular organisms for movement
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What does Nucleoid mean?
Nucleus like.
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What is the function of a Nucleoid?
The nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region within the cell of a prokaryote that contains all or most of the genetic material
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What type of cell you would find a Nucleoid in?
Prokaryote
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Nucleus vs Nucleoid
The Nucleoid isn't sourrounded by a nuclear membrane.
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What are Plasmids?
Plasmids are small circular pieces of DNA that replicate independently from the host's chromosomal DNA.
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Where are Plasmids most commonly found in?
Bacteria but also occur naturally in archaea and eukaryotes (such as yeast and plants)
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What are Mesosomes?
They play a role in cellular respiration, the process that breaks down food to release energy.
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Where would you find Mesosmes?
Lining the cell wall.
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How are Mesosmes found together?
Clumped and folded together to maximise their surface area.
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What are Pili?
A pilus is a thin, rigid fiber made of protein that is on a cells surface.
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What is the function of Pili?
Allows bacterial cells to stick to other surfaces throughout their environment.
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What are Slime Capsules and their function?
It's function is to protect the bacteria cells from environmental dangers such as antibiotics and extreme dryness. Another feature if it allows bacteria to stick (adhere) to smooth surfaces such as prosthetic medical devices and catheters.
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Does a Eukaryotic cell contain a Nucleus?
Yes, but a Prokaryotic doesn't.
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Does a Prokaryotic cell contain a Nucleus?
No, but a Eukaryotic does.
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How many chromosomes does a Eukaryotic cells have?
More than one.
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How many chromosomes does a Prokaryotic cell have?
Only one; which is a plasmid.
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Example of a Eukaryotic cell:
Animals and plants
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Examples of a Prokaryotic cell:
Bacteria and Archaea
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What are Archaea?
These microbes are prokaryotes, meaning that they have no cell nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles in their cells.
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Examples of Archaea:
Fungi
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Is the Golgi apparatus present in Prokaryotic cells?
No
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Is the Golgi apparatus present in Eukaryotic cells?
Yes
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What is present in both Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic cells?
Vacuoles, Vesicles
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What is a Graticule?
A small transparent ruler that becomes superimposed over the image.
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What is the equation for magnification?
measured size /(divided by) actual size
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What is the normal unit for measuring cells?
mm
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What is the final phase of respiration known as?
The Electron Transfer chain
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Where in the process of Respiration is The Electron Transfer chain?
Final Phase
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What basically happens in The Electron Transfer chain?
NADH and FADH2 is converted to ATP
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What processes is NADH and FADH2 formed from used in the Electron Transfer chain? (2 answers)
Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
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What does The Electron Transfer chain consist of?
3 Protein Pumps
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Where are the 3 protein pumps embedded in during The Electron Transfer chain?
Inner membrane of the Mitochondria
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During The Electron Transfer chain, what is used to power the 3 protein pumps? (2 answers)
FADH2 and NADH
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During The Electron Transfer chain, what do the 3 protein pumps function as/do?
Move positive Hydrogen ions (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space
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What is the name of the membrane protein where H+ ions flow back?
ATP Synthase
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How does ATP Synthase make ATP with regard to concentration?
Uses natural movement of ions along their concentration to make ATP.
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How many ATP molecules are produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle combined?
4
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How many ATP molecules are produced by The Electron Transfer chain?
34 ATP
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Where does The Electron Transfer chain occur?
Across the inner membrane of the mitochondria
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What is a key component The Electron Transfer chain requires?
Oxygen
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Does The Electron Transfer chain require Oxygen?
Yes
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Which of the following 3 does The Electron Transfer chain require: CO2, Oxygen, Amino Acids
Oxygen
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Can you remember what The Electron Transfer chain requires?
Oxygen
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During The Electron Transfer chain; as electrons are passed down the chain, what is the energy released to do?
Energy is released which is used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP.
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Define phosphorylate
Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphoryl group to a molecule.
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During The Electron Transfer chain; what is the final acceptor of the electrons?
Oxygen
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During The Electron Transfer chain, the final acceptor of Electrons is Oxygen; what does this form?The Electron Transfer chain?
Water
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What does Aerobic respiration require?
Oxygen
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Glycolysis can function without Oxygen; but what can't it function without?
NAD+
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In aerobic respiration; what does The Electron Transfer chain turn to what?
NADH to NAD+
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In aerobic respiration; what does The Electron Transfer chain turn NADH back to?
NAD+
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In aerobic respiration; what does The Electron Transfer chain convert NADH to NAD+ with?
Oxygen
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Why can't cells doing anaerobic respiration convert NADH to NAD+?
No oxygen is present in anaerobic respiration.
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What way can anaerobic respiration cells change NADH to NAD+?
Fermentation
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What is Fermentation's goal?
Replenish NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue it's stream of ATP production.
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What does Glycolysis 'churn out'?
ATP
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No matter what type of Fermentation occurs; what will always be produced?
2 net ATP in glycolysis
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What are self-feeding organisms called?
autotrophs
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Define: autotrophs
Self-feeding organisms
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What else can autotrophs be referred too/as?
Primary Producers
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Give some examples of organisms which can manufacture complex organic molecules from simple inorganic compounds (water, CO2, nutrients)
plants, some protists, and some bacteria
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What is the process called where plants/some protists and some bacteria can manufacture complex organic molecules?
Photosynthesis
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What does photosynthesis mainly require?
Light
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Define production in terms of food chains
Creation of new organic matter
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Define Gross Primary Production, GPP
The total amount of CO2 that is fixed by the plant in photosynthesis.
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Define Respiration, R
The amount of CO2 that is lost from an organism or system from metabolic activity
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In terms of food chains and GPP; define Rp
Respiration by Plants
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In terms of food chains and GPP; define Rh
Respiration by Heterotrophs
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Define Heterotrophs
An organism that is unable to make its own organic carbon-based compounds from inorganic sources, hence, feeds on organic matter produced by, or available in, other organisms.
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Define Net Primary Production, NPP
The net amount of primary production after the costs of plant respiration are included
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What is the equation for NPP?
NPP = GPP - R
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What are the initiators of food chains?
Green plants or PRODUCERS
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What role do green plants take/have in the food chains?
Are producers; and initiate it.
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Advantages of a meat free diet?
Lower blood pressure; reduce risk of diabetes and cancer; loss of weight;
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Disadvantages of a meat free diet?
No bacon; Iron Deficiency; Depression; Lack of Satiety; Not enough Zinc or Cholestrol
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What is celluar respiration?
Process by which organisms burn food to produce energy
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What do our bodies use Cellular respiration for?
Our bodies use Cellular respiration to make energy from oxygen.
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What is a waste product of Cellular respiration?
CO2
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What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate
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What is ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)?
ATP is the usable form of energy produced by respiration.
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What nucleic acid is ATP similar too?
RNA
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How many phosphate groups does ATP have?
3
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How many phosphate groups does RNA have?
1
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What charges do all 3 of ATP's phosphate groups carry?
Negative
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As all 3 of ATP's phosphate groups are negative; what does this mean in order to hold up three negative charges?
The bonds have to be quite powerful.
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In ATP's 3 phosphate groups; if one or the two bonds broke; what would happen?
The additional phosphate's would be freed and the stored energy would be used as fuel for other chemical reactions.
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What does a cell do when it needs energy (in terms of phosphate groups and ATP)?
The cell removes phosphates from ATP by hydrolysis.
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What is respiration? (in terms of ATP)
Respiration is the process of making ATP rather than breaking it down.
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How is ATP made?
The cell burns glucose and adds new phosphate groups to AMP or ADP, creating new power molecules.
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What does AMP stand for?
Adenosine Monophosphate
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What does ADP stand for?
Adenosine Diphosphate
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What type of respiration occurs without Oxygen?
Anaerobic
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What type of respiration occurs with Oxygen?
Aerobic
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What do Aerobic and Anerobic respiration have in common?
Both types of cell respiration begin with glycolysis
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What does Aerobic respiration use; and what does it produce?
It uses oxygen and glucose to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.
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What is the ratio for Aerobic respiration for Oxygen molecules to every sugar molecule?
It uses six oxygen molecules for every sugar molecule.
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What is the equation for Aerobic respiration?
6O2 + C6H12O66CO2 + 6H2O + ATP energy
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Learn the equation for Aerobic Respiration.
6O2 + C6H12O66CO2 + 6H2O + ATP energy
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What are the 3 stages of Aerobic respiration is the equation stages of?
Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain
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Where does Glycolysis occur?
Cytoplasm of the cell
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Which stage is Glycolysis in for respiration in both Aerobic and Anaerobic?
First for both.
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What role does ATP play in Glycolysis?
ATP is used to split glucose molecules into a three-carbon compound called pyruvate.
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What is the compound pyruvate?
Product of ATP splitting gluecose molecules into the three-carbon compound; pyruvate.
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What is the energy called which is the product of ATP splitting Glucose into pyruvate?
A molecule called NADH.
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Chemical formula for Glycolysis:
C6H12O6 + 2ATP + 2NAD+2pyruvate + 4ATP + 2NADH
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Describe the process of Glycolysis:
Glycolysis splits glucose, a six-carbon compound, into two pyruvate molecules, each of which has three carbons.
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What is the ATP investment to ATP payoff in Glycolysis ratio?
In glycolysis, a 2 ATP investment results in a 4 ATP payoff.
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What makes Glycolysis different from the rest of respiration which occurs in Aerobic respiration?
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell, not the mitochondria.
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Does Glycolysis require Oxygen?
No
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What process occurs after Glycolysis?
The Krebs Cycle
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What happens to the pyruvate sugars after Glycolysis? (Kreb cycle)
Their transported to the Mitochondria.
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What happens during the transport of the pyruvate sugars to the Mitochondria? (Kreb cycle)
They convert from a three-carbon to a two-carbon molecule called ACETATE.
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What is the two-carbon version of pyruvate sugars called? (Kreb cycle)
Acetate
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What is the extra carbon from pyruvate released as? What does this also produce? (Kreb cycle)
CO2 and it also produces NADH which goes to the Electron Transfer chain.
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What does the Kreb cycle begin with?
acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate
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What happens when acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate interact? (Krebs cycle)
They form the six-carbon compound citric acid.
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What is another name for the Kreb cycle?
The citric acid cycle.
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How many chemical reactions does the six-carbon citric acid compound undergo and what does it form? (Krebs cycle)
8 which strips carbons to produce a new oxaloacetate molecule.
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What happens to extra carbon atoms formed during the Kreb cycle during the formation of the oxaloacetate molecule?
CO2
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What is produced during the process of breaking up citric acid?
Energy
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Where is the energy stored during the Kreb cycle? (produced from breaking up citric acid) (3 things)
In ATP, NADH and FADH2
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During the Kreb cycle, what does it result? (x ATP molecules for each x glucose molecules to run through gycolysis)
2 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule run through glycolysis.
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What is the next stage in Respiration; after the Kreb cycle?
The electron transport chain
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What does the Kreb cycle send to the next stage of Respiration?
The Krebs cycle sends NADH and FADH2 molecules on to the next step in respiration.
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What doesn't the Kreb cycle send to the next stage of respiration?
It does not export carbon molecules for further processing.
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Where does the Kreb cycle take place in?
The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, the innermost compartment of the mitochondria.
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What type of process is the Kreb cycle?
Aerobic as it requires Oxygen becuase it relies on by-products from the Electron transport chain.
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What does the Kreb-cycle rely on?
By-products from the Electron Transfer Chain.
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Where does glycolysis take place?
In the cell cytoplasm.
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Where does the Krebs cycle take place?
In the mitochondrial matrix/
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Where does the electron transfer chain occur?
In the mitochondria
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