skill acquisition

1) Cognitive stage

2) Associative stage

3) Autonomous stage

- Many mistakes are made.

- Mental rehearsal of the skill is required.

- The performer uses trial and error, learning to work out the correct method.

- Motor programmes are not yet formed.

- Movements appear uncoordinated and jerky.

- Reliant on extrinsic feedback.

- Some performers never progress beyond this stage.

- Movement appears smoother and more coordinated.

- Motor programmes are developing and will be stored in long-term memory.

- Demonstrations, positive feedback and mental rehearsal are still required to aid learning.

- performer begins to develop kinaesthesis and uses intrinsic feedback to correct movement.

- Extrinsic feedback is still also used

- Movements are fluent and have become habitual due to extensive practice.

- Skills are executed automatically, without consciously thinking about subroutines.

- Performer can concentrate on fine detail, tactics and advanced strategies.

- Performer uses intrinsic feedback to correct themselves due to kinaesthesis.

- Extrinsic feedback can be negative to aid error correction.

A learning plateau is a period during performances without signs of improvement.

stage 1:

performer in the cognitive stage of learning, therefore a low success rate. developing an understanding of the skill.

stage 2:

As the performer practices, there is a sharp increase in success rate as they begin to grasp the skill. enter the associative learning stage. Motivation levels are high.

stage 3:

performer reaches a plateau, no longer progressing with the skill. performance levels maintained.

stage 4:

Performer will have a dip in their success rate. There is a lack of motivation and they may experience drive reduction. remotivation may require new tasks or challenges.

Causes    -    solution:

- loss of motivation/boredom   -   set new tasks/challenges, tangible rewards, use variable practice.

- mental/physical fatigue   -   allow the performer to rest, and use distributed practice.

- limit of ability reached   -   allow the performer to compete against others of similar ability.

- poor coaching   -   try various coaching methods, try an alternative coach.

Cognitive theories (Gestalt)

Gestaltists believe that we learn skills through experiencing the whole task/skill, rather than isolated parts/subroutines. They believe that by learning the skill as a whole, kinaesthesis is developed and the flow of the skill is maintained

this is a cognitive theory, which suggests the performer has to think about what to do but uses their experiences and prior knowledge to help with the situation at hand.

Behaviourism (skinner)

Learning happens by strengthening a link/association between a stimulus and a response. known as an S-R bond.

reinforced actions strengthen the bond (positive feedback)

negative actions can weaken it (criticism)

Social learning (Bandura)

Bandura suggests that we learn by watching and replicating the actions of other 'model' performers, whom we respect and admire.

Learners we are more likely to copy:

- Significant others.

- Models that have similar characteristics.

- Actions that are successful.

- Actions that are reinforced.

constructivism (Vygotsky)

Vygotsky suggested that learning is a social process and that social interaction plays a key role in an individual's development. so we learn skills from people around us with whom we interact

- Knowledge of performance (KP)

- Knowledge of results (KR)

- Positive 

- Negative

- Intrinsic 

- Extrinsic

- Input data from display

- Receptor systems

- Perceptual mechanisms

- Translatory mechanisms

- Effector mechanisms

- Muscular system

- Output data

- Feedback data

Perceptual mechanisms:

a judgement is made regarding incoming information received by sense organs. Perception includes the DCR process (detection, comparison, recognition) selective attention occurs.

Translatory mechanisms:

Using the information from the perceptual mechanisms, a decision is then made on what action should be taken, with the help of previous experiences stored in memory.

Effector mechanisms:

Once motor programme/plan of action is selected, impulses are sent to the relevant working muscles in order to carry out the movement.

                                      central executive

display > phonological loop   visuospatial sketchpad  <  episodic buffer

                      sounds                       visual                    short-term memory     

                                     long-term memory