Section 4 - History

The Revival of Conservatism:

• General election of 1874 brought a firm victory for the Conservatives
• Liberal policies had alienated most support that had brought him to power in 1868
• Broke Liberal dominance after almost 30 years
• Had a secure majority in the Commons 
• Tory vote came largely from the counties, but also some borough and industrial towns
• 26/33 seats in Lancashire went to the Conservatives
• Cabinet contained a new generation of Tory leaders 
• Remained socially exclusive in respect to its landed dominance
• only 1 out of 12 of its members = not a peer or landed gentleman

• Loss of the 1868 election made Disraeli realised that political parties must improve their organisation in order to reach the new, expanding, education electorate
• Appointed John Gorst to overhaul party organisation 
• Set up a Conservative Central Office in London
• Gorst had the poower to choose the candidate
• In 1870 = the National Union of Conservative Associations moved its HQ to Central Office
• Gorst was able to direct its work in the constituencies to imrprove organisation
• National Union grew in importance and became the body to which the constituency groups became affiliated
• Disraeli used it as his 'sounding board' in 1872 to outline his policies 
• Gorst targeted middle as well as working class voters
• Overall rise in the borough vote was a significant factor in the victory in 1874

• After his defeat in 1868, Disraeli kept a lot political profile
• Period leading upp to the 1874 general election - took advantage of Gladstone's increasing discomfort and unpopularity 
• Began to plant the seeds of 'Tory democracy'
• New brand of Conservatism, in order to revive the fortunes of the Conservatives
• Two important political speeches in 1872 
• National Union of Conservative Associations at the Manchester Free Trade Hall
• Crystal Palace in London
• Appeared to appeal to the working class vote - used the notion of Empire as a unifying force 
• Ideal of empire = paramount importance to Disraeli 
• Saw it is a strong political and economic union, with the monarch as its head
• Interested in the new trends towards democracy and working-class voters
• Strongly believed in maintaining tradition and privilge and knew that the party was not ready to abandon the old artisocratic heirachy 
• If the working class placed their trust in the Conservatives = they could share some of the beenfits enjoyed by the more prosperous groups in society 

• Disraeli = responsible for a number of important social reforms 
• Question mark over his sincerity in calling for social reform
• It may have been a dig at Gladstone?
• Working-class votes helped to bring the Conservatives back into power 
• Electorate was tired of Gladstone's endless legislation
• Disraeli presented his party as having a 'broad-based appeal' 

• Much of the legislation was adoptive
• Facilitated change and improvement, rather than insisted on it.
• Local authorities shied away from taking action on the grounds of cost
• Still a reluctance to accept a too rapid expansion of State responsibility 
• Few constructive social reforms 
• Income tax was reduced to 2d - no surplus funds avaliable
• Education act appeared to only prp up the voluntary church schools 
• Compulsory school attendance could have alienated the working classes
• Disraeli did establish the idea of Tory democracy through social reforms 
• Indicated an awareness of the needs of the emergent working class
• Improved influence of trade unions gave working classes a voice
• Public Health Act = practical and lasted for over 60 years
• Gave credence to the idea of a Tory working-clas sman 
• Principle of State invervention was slowly extended 
• Greatest achievement = Trade unions and Labour Laws

Foreign Policy: 

• Similar problems faced as Gladstone
• Maintaining the balance of power in in Europe = paramount importance
• Balance had changed with the emergence of a strong united Germany in 1871
• German Chancellor = Bismarck 
• Created an alliance system that centred on Germany, weakened France and isolated Britain
• Disraeli's foreign policy was designed to restore Britain's position at the centre of world affairs 
• Also to uphold the country's interests abroad, particularly those of its empire
• Disraeli pursued an active and interventionist foreign policy
• 1872 speech at Manchester = Disraeli criticised Gladstone's handling of foreign policy
• Accused him of feebleness in upholding Britain's prestige abroad
• Disraeli's approach is often compared to Lord Palmerson's vigorous approach 
• Decision were based on expediency 
• He did not consider the question of motality in any given situation
• Apprarent in the outcry over the 'Bulgarian Atrocities' 
• Bitter confrontation between Gladstone and Disraeli 

• Decline of the Turkish Empire during the 19th century
• Once stretched from south-east Europe to North Africa 
• Could potentially create opportunities for several other European powers
• France, Russia, Britain, Austria-hungary and Germany became concerned with whether or not they could obtain advantage from supporting or turning their back on a troubled Turkey 
• Suited Disraeli to commit himself to a policy of containing Russia's ambitions
• Lend additional support to Turkey to achieve this

• Delicate balance of power between Russia, Turkey and Austria 
• Treaty of Paris = Turkey would give better treatment towards the Christians within the Empire
• Russia gave up any claim to protect them
• Agreement was soon broken and the Christians suffered persecution at the hands of the Ottoman Turks
• Result was a revolt in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1875 against the Turks 
• Following year = spread to Bulgaria
• Later affected Serbia and Montenegro 
• Balkan nationalist rising and offered the chance for European interference
• Greatest Powers tried to deal with the unrest by diplomatic means 
• Disraeli publicy expressed concerns as he did not with the Dreikaiserbund to exploit the situation for its own ends
• Reluctantly accepted proposals made to the Turkish government, by the Austro-Hungarian minimster 
• These proposals were quickly unravelled when Turkey failed to cooperate
• Dreikaiserbund continued diplomatic efforts by issuing the Berlin Memorandum in June 1876
• Signed by Germany, Austria, Russia, France and Italy 
• Demanded change and reform within the Turkish government
• Disraeli refused to be a signatory on the grounds that he had not been consulted in initial dicussions
• He was anxious that it would weaken Turkey to the extent that it would not be able to stop Russia expansion 
• Damange British interests

• Disraeli sent British naval vessels to the Dardanelle Straits 
• Britain could not be marginalised in European decision making 
• Action was seen by Turkey as an indication of British support 
• The new Turkish Leader, Abdul Hamid, stemmed the Bulgarian revolt by using a force of irregular troops 
• Carried out artocities against the Christian population in Bulgaria
• Strong reaction from Britain
• Extent of artrocities was minimised by Disraeli
• Scale of horror was revealed in the Daily News 
• Gladstone made much political mileage in a violent verbal attack - "The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of East"
• Proposed to expel the Turks from the Balkans 
• Disraeli and Gladstone relationship was bitter as Disraeli felt he had destroyed British unity 
• Offered unnecessary encouragment to the Russians 
• Disraeli = indifferent to the sufferings of the Christians 
• Moral outrage in Gladstone 
• End of 1876 = Disraeli's foreign policy actions had sabotaged a settlement in the Eastern Crisis, encouraged the Turks to carry out atrocities against the Bulgarians, and caused expressions of deep outrage against him at home 

• December 1876
• Try and stem the worsening situation, but demands for Turkey to reform were rejected by the Sultan 
• Disraeli refused to pressurise the Turks, going against the advice of Lord Derby
• Conference broke up 
• Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877 on the grounds that it was acting on behalf of the Christians
• Britain would only agree to remain neutral on the condition that Russia did not threaten position in Egypt and the Suez Canal, or enter Constantinople
• Public opinion had turned in Disraeli's favour
• Outbreak of 'jingoism' and anti-Russian feeling
• War ended quickly the following year with the Treaty of San Stefano 
• Russia proposed doubling the size of Bulgaria, over which it had huge influence
• Britain and Austria demanded a European Congress 
• Disraeli knew that Russia was weak financially and ilitarily 
• Postured by ordering the British fleet to Constantinople and moved Indian troops to Malta 
• Derby resigned in frustration at Disraeli's brinkmanship 
• Lord Salisbury became foreign secretary 

• The Treaty of Berlin was eventually agreed after a series of secret negotiations 
• Disraeli's main objective = keep Russia out of the Mediterranean and reduce influence in the Balkan's
• The 'Big Bulgaria' proposed in the Treaty of San Stefano was broken up 
• Smaller state created and returned to Turkish suzerainty 
• Agreement reached between Britain and Turkey
• Britain = recieved Cyprus 
• Turkey = promised toleration of Christian subjects in return for guaranteeing Turkish dominions 
• Britain could keep watch on Russian ship movements to the North and South of the Suez Canal 
• Agreement between Austria-Hungary an Britain secured Austro-Hungarian occupation in Bosnia and Herzegovina 
• Indepdence of Serbia and Montenegro = guaranteed
• Serbia = englarged 
• Congress of Berlin = personal triumph for Disraeli 
• Successful = Congress agreed to limit Russia's gains and the overall results strengthened Turkey in the Balkans and, therefore, the front of Russia
• Averted full-scale war 
• Placded many Christians under Turkish rule again
• Austro-Hungarian occupation in the Balkans weakened the Dreikaiserbund 
• All the agreement lay the seeds for the Great War, 30 years later 
• Disraeli claimed 'Peace with Honour'

• Traditional view = Disraeli aimed to pursue the expansion of the Empire
• Historians have cncluded = he wanted to preserve, not expand, the Empire
• The Empire brought the power and prestige which gave Britain influence in Europe 
• Little evidence to suggest he had any great designs for the empire
• Advertised the importane of the empire to his increasing popularity
• Took few initiatives 
• Left much of the decision makig to his ministers or officials abroad 

• Colonial Secretary put pressure on the Dutch settlers to accept the annexation fo the Transvaal by Britain to deal with the threat of a Zulu attack 
• Meant to be part of a bigger plan to form a South African Federation
• Incorporating British and Dutch settlements but as part of the British Empire
• Carnarvon appointed a British High Commissioner = Bartle Frere 
• Disobeyed orders from London and got involved in a war against the Zulus 
• British force of 1000 men died at Isandhlwana in 1879
• Several months before the situation could be recovered 
• Zulus declared defeat at Ulundi 
• Disraeli = furious at the news of the war, but had given Carnavon too much of a free hand 
• His own reputation suffered as a result 

• 1875 = Disraeli acted decisively over the purchase of shares in the Suez Canal 
• Government of the Khedive of Egypt was on the verge of bankruptcy 
• Needed £4m to avoid insolvency 
• Disraeli consulted Queen Victoria who gave the purchase her blessing
• Money was raised through a loan with Jewish bankers (Rothschilds) 
• Smart move by Disraeli
• Britain was able to exert influence over the suez canal, there would be huge advantages:
  •  
    • Britain negotiated a low rate for British shipping to pass through the canal, and this helped to achieve cheaper inports and exports and so stimulated trade
    • The deal helped to establish a sold British interest in Egypt
    • Reduced the travelling time to India from the Far East 
    • Provided an easy and speedy means of increasing military and naval forces in the Far East and more especially in India, where security concerns were growing 

• Trouble = Indian North-West frontier with Afghanistan 
• Battle of wits between Russia and Britain as to who could gain control of Afghanistan first
• Disraeli thought to encourage good relations with the Amir first, so he would be sympathetic with British conerns 
• Colonial Secretary was in charge of British policy in India 
• Lord Lytton = appointed Viceroy with the remit of setting up a British mission in the Afghan capital, Kabul
• Lytton supported a forward or expansionist policy in India
• Reservations from Salisbury and Derby about Lytton's suitability for the job
• 1878 = Tsar sent a mission to Kabul 
• Lytton was ordered to take no action until all diplomatic channels had been tried
• Lytton sent troops in Afghanistan despite orders and chased the Russias out 
• A British mission was established in Kabul
• 1879 = resentment against the British spilled over into a massacre of the entire mission
• A strong force of British troops = immediately dispatched 
• Order wasn't restored until after 1880
• Much criticism of Disraeli's lack of control over Lytton and aggressive policy
• Soon after = stable and lasting relationship with Afghanistan emerged

• General election of 1880 = victory for the Liberals
• Gladstone was riding high on a successful election campaign 
• Mounting anger against Disraeli's foreign policy decisions had drawn back Gladstone
• Gladstones argued on the Bulgarian atrocities was the beginning of his success
• Noticeable division within the Liberal party
• Old Whigs = led by Hartington who feared Gladstone's radicalism
• Radicals = led by Chamberlain who was at odds with Gladstone over the need for increased taxation to pay for an extensive programme of social reform
• Irish Nationalist Party = led by Parnell and now strong enough to make its presence felt
• Leadership of the Conservatives was taken over by Salisbury 

• Much of Gladstone's Second Ministry was taken up with the problems relating to Ireland
• He was responsible for some other far reaching political reforms and actions
• Moved Britain towards greater democracy 

• The Corrupt Practices Act, 1883
• The Franchise Act, 1884
• Redistribution of Seats Act, 1884

• The Corrupt Practices Act = extension of the Secret Ballot Act of 1872
• Closed the loopholes that allowed corruption to continue 
• Ensured that candidate's election expenses wre set to a specified limit
• Made clear what campaign money could be spent on 
• Election agents had to produce accounts
• Clearly defined illegal and corrupt practices
• Introduced stiff fines and prison sentences for anyone breaking the law
• Politicians now had to win support by promoting better policies 
• Reinforced by a growing working-class electorate 

• Real impetus for electoral reform came from Joseph Chamberlain
• Part of his strategy to take control of the Liberals and replace its leadership 
• Believed that electoral reform could produce mor Liberal voters from the labouring populatio in th rural areas who still did not have the vote 
• Mainly agricultural labourers and a large number of miners
• No logical argument against extending the franchise
• Gladstone's ministry was running into trouble over Ireland 
• Agreed to electoral reform as a means of winning back popularity 
• Gladstone took the credit for the reform 

• Real impetus for electoral reform came from Joseph Chamberlain
• Part of his strategy to take control of the Liberals and replace its leadership 
• Believed that electoral reform could produce mor Liberal voters from the labouring populatio in th rural areas who still did not have the vote 
• Mainly agricultural labourers and a large number of miners
• No logical argument against extending the franchise
• Gladstone's ministry was running into trouble over Ireland 
• Agreed to electoral reform as a means of winning back popularity 
• Gladstone took the credit for the reform 

• Franchise reform removed discrimination over voting - no longer tied to property
• Uniform franchise in both counties and boroughs now existed
• Agricultural labourers and miners in rural areas brought into the voting system
• Electorate doubled to 6 million voters 
• Two out of three men now had the vote 
• Enfranchised th working classes and reduced the influence of the landed classes
• Great step towards democracy
• Redistrubution of seats brought an end to the over-representation of the rural areas and under-representation of the industrial towns and cities
• Most constituencies were now singl member and equally sized in terms of population
• System of constituencies was tied in with the distribution of the population
• Fair representation across Britain
• Encouraged political organisations to improve their organisation 
• Radicals brought into contact with new rural voters, while the Conservatives strengthened their support in the boroughs - introduced a modern system of electoral representation
• New Irish voters consolidated the position of Parnell and the Irish Nationalist Party 
• Strengthened the Home Rule fight
• Liberals lost old Whig support by the abolition of so many seats

• Radicals took on a more influential position in the Liberal Party
• Marked the beginning of the end of Gladstonian Liberalism
• Gladstone's administration achieved little less in terms of reform
• Distracted by the crises abroad and the problems over Ireland
• Gladstone was increasingly difficult to work with and Chamberlain's ambitions harder to contain
• Chamberlain's plans attracted th voters who gave them the majority in 1885 
• Marked the beginning of Gladstone's short-lived third term in office
• Liberals = severely weakened 

• Gladstone had made clear his opposition to Disraeli's foreign and imperial policies
• Critised Disraeli on the grounds of aggression, immorality and cost 
• Difficult to work out where Gladstone stood on foreign/imperial affairs 
• First Ministry = criticised for severe disinterest
• Once in office for Second Ministry = he appeared to turn around into a pro-imperial stance 

• 1878 = Egypt on the verge of political and economic collapse
• Britain had considerable investments in Egypt and the Suez Canal
• Gross misuse of funds by the Khedive that had been earmarked to buld up the infrastructure 
• Khedive was deposed in favour of his son 
• Anglo-French Dual Control Commission was put in place to restore financial stability and look after investors
• Gave itself the power to pass reforms and cut expenditure 
• Stirred up nationalist feelings
• 1881 = Egyptian Army Officer led a nationalist rebellion, seized power, formed a government and banned foreign intervention in Egypt 
• Gladstone sanctioned the navy to join France and send warships to Alexandria 
• Egyptians prepared a defence against the Anglo-French fleet
• Last minute = French withdrew
• Confused orders led to an attack on Alexandria by the British fleet and there was a breakdown of law and order
• Little alternative but to invade Egypt alone
• Established Britain as land power in the Middle East for the first time
• Nationalist feeling = short lived 
• He was defeated by British troops, captured and dported
• Gladstone = intended to sort the problem and withdraw from Egypt as quickly as possible 

• Justified reason = He believed British interests and the strategic position of Egypt to be greater importance
• Further justification = to bring order and stability to Egypt 

• Sudan was under the control of Egypt 
• Authority had been undermined by actions of religious extremist, the Madhi 
• 1883 = The Khedive sent force into the Sundan under British officer, Hicks
• Aim was to supress the Madhi
• Battle of Shkan = Hicks was killed and the army ambushed and trapped
• Gladstone expressed some sympathy for the Mahdi's position and his right to fight for his people's freedom and right to self-government 
• View that had little sympathy in the 'Empire England'
• The army of Egypt was in a perilous position
• Glastone made the decision to send General Gordon to carry out the evacuation
• View that Gordon had his own agenda - to refuse to withdraw until he had taught the Mahdi a lesson
• At first = Gordon held the Nile Valley against the Mahdi
• He was pushed back into Khartoum
• Gordon requested relief troops
• Delay and the reinforcements arrived two days too late to save Gordon
• Seen as a national hero - badly let down by British authorities
• Continued policy of withdrawal from the Sudan - leaving the Mahdi in control
• Gladstone = peak of unpopularity 

• Zulus were defeated in 1879
• Sir Garnet Wolseley made high commissioner of the Transvaal 
• Making it a crown colony instead of giving it the self-governing status as promised 
• Gladstone strongly criticised the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 by Disraeli
• Expectation from the Boers that they would have independence
• 1881 = Gladstone stalled on the issue
• Fighting broke out between the British and the Boers 
• Boers inflicted a humiliating defeat on the British at Majuba Hill in 1881
• Gladstone chose to compromise and granted independence with the British crown maintaining sovereignty 
• Soon dropped after the Boers' angry reaction
• 1884 = British government finally recognised the South African Republic 

• Gladstone intention = withdraw from Afghanistan
• Dissuaded by the Indian Viceroy, Lord Ripon, who was anxious not to create unrest on the border and allow the Russians to take advantage
• Gladstone agreed to continue to ference of Afghanistan 
• Felt the policy carried risks as the British did not have the necessary control in Afghanistan to ensure success
• 1885 = Russians seized Afghan town, which lay close to the Russian border
• Russians expected to get away with it 
• Gladstone threatened force
• Russians withdraw and agreed arbitration

• Egypt = Gladstone had to consider British interests first
• Occupation of Egypt surprised many and was greeted with approval by the public
• Caused John Bright to resign from Cabinet 
• Concerted European action over Egypt failed
• Situation caused friction between Britain and France 
• Turkey = annoyed by being side-side
• France and Germany looked for colonial opportuniies for themselves
• Gladstone = appeared to be on the back foot and pulled out of areas of informal British control to make way for other European interests
• Gladstone was against interference with nationalist movements
• He believed that they had a right to express themselves
• Up against the pro-imperialist positions held by the majority of MPs
• Transvaal = Gladstone hesistated which became a costly mistake 
• Seen as giving way to force
• Boers thereafter regarded the British as weak
• Sudan = mistake in the choice of Gordon 
• Gladstone handled the whole incident badly 
• Britain was humiliated by withdrawal, leaving the Mahdi victorious 

• Little sympathy/understanding of Gladstone's foreign policy actions
• Often appeared contradictory
• Successes met with criticism and created divisions within the party between the Radical anti-imperialists and the Whigs who often supported a pro-imperialist position