RELIGION IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT

• seek to return back to the basics of the fundamentals of their faith 
• religious fundamentalism arises when traditional beliefs and values are threatened by modern society and the impact of a globalised economy - it can also come from societies adapting a western outlook on attitudes towards sexuality and gender 
• religion is becomng softer in American however it is still socially desirable to be religious 
• ALDRIDGE - no text speaks for itself, it has to be interpreted ie bible is a set of historical facts ignoring other things such as poetry and symbolism 
• so an authoritative text ie bible cannot be open to interpretation because its truths are valid - only those who accept these historical facts are true christians - fundamentalists are intolerant of other views and refuse to argue against this 
• fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world 'us and them' mentality
• aggressive mentality - aim to draw attention to the threat of their beliefs
• use of modern technology - achieve their aims by televangelism 
• patriarchy - HAWLEY - favour a world which controls womens sexuality/ reproductive powers
• conspiracy theories - the idea that powerful, hidden, evil forces are in control of human destiny - world domination 

• DAVIE - fundamentalism is a response to modernity and develops when those who follow orthodox/ traditional beliefs feel threatened by 'modernity' - seen as a defence mechanism 
• under modernity, rational, secular and scientific ways of thinking dominate and the magico - religious explanations of the world declines, multiple truths undermine religious certainity - sacred canopy, monopoly of truth 
• globalisation and interconnectedness of the world creates one global village - leading to uncertainity and the pluralism of truths 
• GIDDENS - argues that fundamentalism - back to basics - develops out of a response to globalisation - comes a spread of non-traditional ideas surrounding sexuality, gender, identity and femal empowerment 
• globalisation has cause the spread of new ideas which directly challenges the traditional authority that religion once had 
• materialism in interpreted as meaningless and a threat to young minds who wish to establish an authentic identity 
• globalisation challenges established ideas/ behaviour and the relativism it brings goes against monolithic religion - religious pluralism and secular thinking 

• GIDDENS - individuals are attracted to fundamentalism as it provides certainty and meaning in a risk led globalised world
• with multiple truths he identifies religious fundamentalism within islam and christianity and hinduism which provides members with a rigid dogmatic structure 
• fundamentalism is the opposite of COSMOPOLITIANISM - the acceptance of new ideas where beliefs change dependent upon new information - relflexitive thinking 
• ones lifestyle is seen as a personal choice rather than prescribed belief
• cosmopolitianism and spirituality emphasises the pursuit of meaning and self improvement rather than a submission of authority - similar to new age 

RESPONSES TO POSTMODERNITY 

• BAUMAN - fundamentalism as a response to living in postmodernity - this society brings freedom of choice, uncertainity and risks of awareness- some are attracted and some turn to fundamentalism for truth and certainty
• CASTELL - distinguishes between two responses to postmodernity 
• resistance identity - defensive reaction of those who feel threatened - retreat to FM
• project identity - those who accept cosmo/ engage with new movements ie feminism 

• distinguish too sharply between cosmopolitianism and fundamentalism ignoring 'hybird' movements
• they are fixated on fundamentalism - ignoring other important developments
• giddens lumps all types of fundamentalism together, ignoring important differences between them 

MONOTHEISM AND FUNDAMENTALISM 

• GIDDENS AND BRUCE -argues that fundamentalism develops when individuals feel that their beliefs are being threatened - fundamentalism - more likely in monothesitic religion - one god - whereby a sacred text is perceived to be the word of god - literal truth - through this believers are told how to act and to behave this leads to little room for interpretation 
• anything that challenges the sacred causes a negative/ extreme reaction = all down to interpretation and challenges to beliefs is more tolerated 
• BRUCE - origins of fundamentalism differs based upon a given location 
• western fundamentalism - christian fundamentalism in the west is caused by internal social changes, secularisation, laws to permit homosexuality, abortion, female rights and development of science 
• within developing nations, thirld world - fundamentalism is caused by external social changes - economic development, americanisation, western foreign policies, iraq - democracy, iran - pro western government - culture defence 

• the first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism - came about after the enlightenment period - led to secular belief in certainity of progress based on science and human reason to improve the world - dominated europe to help secularise all areas of social life undermining religious certainties - religious fundamentalism is one reaction to secularisation 
• the second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism - optimism of enlightenment has come under attack - has produced insecurity caused by changes in globalisation, concerns about the environment and the collapse of communism - led to loss of faith in enlightenment 
• these secular ideologies are struggling for survival just like traditional religion 'past their sell by date' 
• in europe religious challenges to liberal secular values have provoked a secular fundamentalist reaction - ie france banned pupils from wearing religious symbols in school and made it illegal for women to wear the veil in public - discriminates against muslims and jews 
• ANSELL - sees trends as a form of cultural racism - it is about preserving cultural idenity and 'our way' of life - it legitimates the exclusion of religious/ cultural minorities 
• DAVIE argues both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist as a result of greater uncertainties - reasserting the truth becomes attractive 
• LEGER - sees fundamentalism as the form of recreated memories of socities that have suffered from cultural amnesia and forgotten their historical religious traditions 

• religious differences between civilisations = a major source of conflict = creates an 'us and them' relationships - this increases competition and religious differences are harder to resolve, the political ones are deeply embedded in culture and history ---- globalisation increases contact between civilisations = conflict ie 9/11 by fundamentalist islamics - for huntington the problem is not islamic fundamentalism but Islam                        CRITICISMS BELOW 

• JACKSON - sees H's work as an example of orientalism - a western ideology that stereotypes eastern nations and people - muslims - as untrustworthy/ inferior and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the west 
• HORRIE AND CHIPPINDALE - see this a grossly misleading neo-conservative ideology that portrays the whole of islam as an enemy 
• ARMSTRONG - reaction to western forgein poicy in the middle east , west has propped up regimes however show unfair/ aggressive treatment to palestinans 
• NORRIS AND INGELHART - issue that divides the west is not muslims but gender/ sexuality, muslim traditions remain the same, the west traditions have changed - more liberal. Real clash between the west/ muslims = background/ culture - no definite way to act, attitudes about divorce/ abortion are different in other cultures, leads to the external threat in other countries 

• religion - weber - may contribute to the development of protestant work ethic 
• globalisation has brought rapid economic growth - India has become an important player 
• globalisation has influenced India - establish new Indian middle class 
• with the breakdown of nation states globalisation has allowed the economy to grow with advabcements in technology and education - this has aided the development of new occuptations ie IT, biotechnology
• based upon the principle of the enlightenment it was automatically suggested the India would lose religion however this has not happened 
• a survey found that Indians are becoming more religious with greater rates of religiosity being found amongst the urban middle class 
• 1. a dramatic growth in religious tourism - visits to shrines and temples
• 2. greater attention is now paid to low status, village gods who are seen as being more responsive to peoples needs 
• greater religious participation is due to their confusion with their new found wealth 
• religion is used for social change
• rids people from salvation panic 

• NANDA - modern versions of hinduism legitimates the position of the MC and allows them to adjust to a new globalisd culture - demonstrates the idea that religion is used to legitimate consumerism which allows for economic development - peoples values have led to economic development in india 
• there exists a tension between traditional hindu beliefs rejecting material goods and upwardly mobile MC - being materially well off can be balanced - if you pay/ visit religious temples you can donate parts of your wealth 
• to resolve this tension the MC turn to newer versions of hinduism which preaches material desire is not an unholy thing but a feature of religion -dont have to be poor to follow religion - criticism of existential security and this is not for social solidarity or value consensus
• HINDUISM IS PERCEIVED AS THE MEANS TO LEGITIMATE INDIAN NATIONALISM - the belief in the state which is inclusive to all people
• indias economic success is due to values taught within Hinduism 1. DUTY OF WORK, 2. EFFORT, 3. EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS, 4. FAMILY 
• the strong belief that one culture is far superior than others - these work based values are promoted and encouraged within the media and by politicians 
• the worship of hindu gods is the same as worshipping the state - civil religion - BELLAH 

• rather than religion declining hinduism is ingrained with india which promotes values that lads to economic success
• due to the rise of science and technology hinduism has penertrated public life 
• 1. hindu sciences are taught at uni
• 2. weapons are created with 'magical power' as stated with ancient texts
• 3. the development and sale of cow urine to cure aliments such as AID's 
• Nanda demonstrates that religion is still significant 
• fundamentalism - as a reaction against modernism and post modernism 
• religion as the cause of conflicts - HUFFINGTON/ NORRIS AND ENGLEHART
• cultural defence - responding to external threat - using poland and iran 
• religion is linked to economic development and prosperity - hinduism in india 

• argues 'post confucian' values which encourage hard work, self discipline and commitment to education and self improvement has motivated economic development/ productivity - effect of this value is similar to protestant ethic
• PENTECOSTALISM IN LATIN AMERICA - embraced similar work ethic to calvinists - values calvinists pursued was having an ascetic lifestyle - self discipline, hard work, abstience from luxury goods and material possessions - working hard led tp cope with salvation panic - as they got wealthier they took signs of god favour and their salvation - this leads members to prosper and become upwardly moblie leading to economic growth 
• berger argrees with weber to state it is necessary to promote economic development as pentecostalism demands an ascetic way of living - however to reject webers understanding religious beliefs are not enough to produce economic development, natural resources are needed to grow and develop economically 
• pentecostalism incorporates local beliefs that use imagery and symbolism from local cultures and communties - this validates local beliefs and also creates new local religious beliefs which help to adapt local customs/ establish local identity - therefore shows local diversity in different parts of the world - pentecostalism also appeals to the poor who make up the majority of the population