Psychopathology Revision Cards

Statistics describe typical values 

A frequency graph of behaviours tends to show a normal distribution 

The extreme ends define what is not the norm i.e abnormal

Some behaviour is desirable - can't distinguish from desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviour 

Cut off point is subjective - important for deciding who gets treatment 

Sometimes appropriate - e.g for intellectual disability define as less then two standards deviations below mean IQ 

Cultural relativism - statistical infrequency is relative to the reference population 

Norms defined by a group of people 

Standards of what is acceptable 

May be implicit or defined by law 

Susceptible to abuse - varies with changing attitude/morals, can be used to incarcerate those who are nonconformists 

Related to context and degree - e.g shouting is normal in some places and in moderation 

Strengths - distinguishes desirable from nondesirable behaviour, and considers the effects on others 

Cultural relativism - social norms of dominant culture used as basis for DSM, imposed on other cultural groups 

Being unable to manage everyday life e.g eating regularly 

Lack of functioning is abnormal if it causes distress to self and/or others 

WHODAS used to provide quantitative measure of functioning 

Distress may be judged subjectively 

Behaviour may be functional e.g depression may be rewarding for the individual 

Strengths - recognised subjective experience for the individual can be measure objectively 

Cultural relativism - standards of everyday life vary between cultures, non-traditional lifestyles may be judged as inadequate 

Jahoda identified characteristics commonly used when describing competent people 

For example, high self esteem, self actualisation, autonomy, accurate perception of reality, mastery of the environment 

Unrealistic criteria - may not be useably because too ideal 

Equates mental and physical health - whereas mental disorders tend not to have physical causes 

Positive approach - a general part of the humanistic approach 

Culture bound criteria e.g self-actualisation not relevant to collectivist cultures 

Emotional: excessive fear, anxiety and/or panic cued by a specific object or situation 

Behavioural: avoidance, faint or freeze, interferes with everyday life

Cognitive: not helped by rational argument, unreasonableness of the behaviour recognised 

Emotional: negative emotions - sadness, loss of interest and sometimes anger

Behavioural: reduced or increased by activity related to energy levels, sleep and/or eating 

Cognitive: irrational, negative thoughts and self-beliefs that are self fulfilling 

Emotional: anxiety and distress, and awareness that this is excessive, leading to shame 

Cognitive: recurrent, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions), more than everyday worries 

Behavioural: compulsive behaviours to reduce obsessive thoughts, not connected in a realistic way 

(The Two Process Model) 

Classical conditioning - phobia acquired through association between NS and UCR, NS becomes CS, producing fear 

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner) - developed fear of white rat which generalised to other white furry objects 

Operant conditioning - phobia maintained through negative reinforcement (avoidance of fear) 

Social learning - phobic behaviours of others modelled 

Classical conditioning - people often report a specific incident but not always, may only apply to some types of phobias (Sue et al) 

Diathesis-stress model - not everyone bitten by a dog develops a phobia (di Nardo et al), may depend on genetic vulnerability for phobias 

Social learning - fear response acquired through observing reaction to a Buzzer (Bandura and Rosenthal) 

Biological preparedness - phobias more likely with ancient fears, conditioning alone can't explain all phobias 

Two process model ignores cognitive factors - irrational thinking may explain social phobias 

(Systematic De-sensitisation) 

Counterconditioning - phobic stimulus associated with new response of relaxation 

Reciprocal inhibition - the relaxation inhibits anxiety (Wolpe) 

Relaxation - deep breathing, focus on peaceful scene, progressive muscle relaxation 

Desenitisation hierarchy - from least to most fearful, relaxation practised at every step 

Effectiveness - 75% success (McGrath et al) , in vivo techniques may work better or a combination (Comer)

Not for all phobias - works less well for ancient fears (Ohman et al) 

Strengths - behavioural therapies are fast and require less effort than CBT, can be self administered

(Ellis' ABC Model 1962) 

Activating event leads to rational or irrational belief, which then leads to consequences

Mustabatory thinking causes disappointment and depression 

(Beck's negative triad) 

Negative schema - develops in childhood, lead to cognitive biases 

Negative triad - irrational and negative view of self, the world and the future 

Support for role of irrational thinking - depressed people make more errors in logic (Hammen and Krantz) however, irrational thinking may not cause depression 

Blames the client and ignores situational factors - recovery may depend on recognising environmental factors 

Practical applications to CBT - support the role of irrational thoughts in depression 

Irrational beliefs may be realistic - depressed people may be realists, 'sadder but wiser' (Alloy and Abrahamson) 

Alternative explanation - genes may cause low levels of serotonin, predisposing people to develop depression

Ellis' ABCDEF model 

D for disrupting irrational beliefs e.g logical, empirical, pragmatic 

E and F for Eddecrs of disrupting and Feelings that are produced 

Homework - trying out new behaviours to test irrational beliefs 

Behavioural activation - encouraging re-engagement with pleasurable activities

Unconditional positive regard - reduces sense of worthlessness 

Research support - generally successful, Ellis estimated 90% success over 27 sessions. May depend on therapist competence (Kuyken and Tsivirkos) 

Indiviudal differences - CBT not suitable for those with rigid irrational beliefs, those whose stressors cannot be changed and those who don't want direct advice.

Behavioural activation - depressed clients in an exercise group has lower relapse after 6 months (Babyak et al)

Alternative treatments - drug therapy is much easier in time and effort, can be used with CBT 

Dodo bird effect - all treatments equally effective because they share feature e.g talking to a sympathetic person (Rosenzweig)

(Flooding) 

One long session with the most fearful stimulus 

Continues until anxiety subsides and relaxation is complete 

Can be in vivo or virtual reality 

Individual differences - traumatic and, if the patients quit, then has failed as a treatment 

Effectiveness - research suggests it may be more effective than SD and quicker (Choy et al) 

Relaxation may not be necessary - creating a new expectation of coping may matter more (Klein et al) 

Symptom substitution - a phobia may be a symptom of an underlying problem (e.g Little Hans) 

COMPT gene - one allele more common in OCD creates high levels of dopamine (Tukel et al)

SERT gene- one allele more common in a family with OCD, creates low levels of serotonin 

Diathesis-stress - same genes linked to other disorders or no disorder at all, therefore, genes create a vulnerability

Dopamine levels high in OCD - linked to compulsive behaviours in animal studies 

Serotonin levels low in OCD - antidepressants that increase serotonin are effective 

Worry circuit - damaged caudate nucleus doesn't suppress worry signals from OFC to thalamus 

Serotonin and dopamine linked to activity in these parts of the frontal lobe 

Studies of first-degree relatives - 5 times greater risk of OCD if relative has OCD (Nestadt et al)

Twin studies - twice as likely to have OCD if MZ twins (Billett et al) 

Environmental component - concordance rate never 100%, type of OCD is not inherited 

Genes are not specific to OCD - also linked to Tourette's, autism, anorexia 

Research support for genes and OFC - OCD patients and family members (genetic link) more likely to have reduced grey matter in OFC (Menzies et al)

RWA - genes may be blocked or modified, genetic explanations lull people into thinking these are simple solutions 

Alternative explanations - relevance of two-process model supported by success of SD like therapy called ERP

Antidepressant increase serotonin

SSRIs - prevent re-uptake of serotonin by pre-synaptic neuron 

Tricyclics - block re-uptake of noradrenaline and serotonin but have more severe side-effects, so are second choice treatment 

Anti anxiety drugs - BZs enhance GABA, a neurotransmitter that slows down the nervous system 

D-Cycloserine - reduces anxiety 

Effectiveness - SSRIs better than placebo over the short term 

Drug therapies are preferred - less time and less effort than CBT, and may benefit from interaction with caring doctor 

Side effects - not so severe with SSRIs, more severe with tricyclics and BZs 

Not a lasting cure - patients relapse when treatment stops, CBT may be preferable 

Publication bias - more studies with positive results published which may bias doctor preferences