From Pitt to Peel Foreign Policy

• Admiral Howe defeated the French fleet in 1794. 
• Pitt made good use of Britain’s strengths and minimise their weaknesses, as he made intelligent use of Britain’s resources and financial strength which he had previously build up.
• Pitt was a successful because he didn’t lose.
• Pitt’s financial skill in raising taxes to meet very large wartime expenditures substantially out of income rather than letting the debt get out of hand.
• Income tax raised £5 million per year, which accounted for 28% of additional wartime funding.
• Britain under Pitt as a wartime leader won 6 territories in 1796.

• Troops whom had landed in Toulon were being rapidly defeated in August 1793, and his attack in Southern Brittany also failed. Pitt miscalculated the strength of the patriotism and the national consciousness in France.
• Up to 70% of the 89,000 troops died when capturing the French colonies in the Caribbean due to tropical disease.
• Even though Pitt’s speeches were argued solidly with a clear position, they were seen to be lacking inspiration from contemporaries.
• Britain entered the war unprepared and undermanned, and it took too long for Britain to realise that their strategic concern with the situation in north west Europe wasn’t shared by Britain’s main Allies.
• The French had major land victories in Europe.
• Assessed tax was the tax in which Pitt trebled in 1797.
• National Debt rose by 80% in the first five years of conflict.  

Overall, Pitt was unsuccessful and ineffective war time leader, as even though he never lost, Britain were unprepared and undermanned, and he was often seen as an uninspiring speaker. It took too long to realise that his and the allies' strategic interests were not shared, he believed that the war would be short, much national wealth was wasted based on this assumption.

The French Revolution was a period of social and political upheaval in France that took place during 1789 and 1799, and was carried out by Napoleon during the later expansion of the French Empire. This led to the end of the monarchy, the revolution ended when Napoleon took power in November 1799 and began dictatorship. King Louis XVI was executed.

The impact on Britain was that people became more nationalist and radical societies were becoming more aware of events in France. The wanted to cause a radical uprising against the British government. 

British naval power was a major factor enabling Britain to remain free to oppose Napoleon. However, there were issues which arose as the blockade brought hostile reactions in Europe and the USA, to add to that the economic warfare it provoked caused distress and hardship in Britain. Britain would not have been able to defeat the French unless Napoleon suffered major military defeats on land due to Napoleon’s control over Europe. British policy of limited continental commitment and reliance on naval strategy was only successful due to French over commitment and the very heavy losses suffered in land warfare in 1812-14.

The Peninsular War began when Portugal, one of Britain’s oldest allies, refused to accept Napoleon’s enforcement of the Continental System. In 1808, Britain sent forces to Portugal, and Portugal’s long coastline helped the navy support the British expeditionary forces. Furthermore, the French relied on long lines of communication, which lead to the French forces being defeated. The war ended in 1809, as Napoleon was distracted by war in Austria, then more British forces were sent to Portugal and the French were defeated.

The continental system, banning France and the countries it dominated from accepting British goods, was introduced by Napoleon to counter it. To block European trade with Britain was an ambitious scheme of economic warfare, due to more than any other power, Britain depends on trade and industry. Blocking that trade would cause severe unrest in Britain, but Napoleon had to ensure the co-operation of all European countries. This required a French invasion of Portugal and Spain, which Napoleon had never fully controlled. Britain took this opportunity to send troops to Europe.

The diplomacy of Britain, despite the estimated £600 million spent in the war and the heavy subsidising of allies, would have been ineffective had Napoleon not been so determined to carry on the struggle. Even after his defeat in Russia in 1812, the divisions among the continental powers and Austria’s fear of Russian power might have allowed  him to retain power.

Britain was able to sustain a long and very expensive war because of its economic and financial strength. However, British forces could not defeat Napoleon and bring about a change of regime in France on their own. We might conclude that Britain emerged victorious largely because of circumstances beyond its control. So in my opinion the most important factor is naval power, as the French over committed, Britain took control of the situation, and began the defeat of Napoleon.  

• „An additional 20,000 men were sent to Spain and in June 1812 Britain formed the sixth of the European coalitions it had supported with Russia, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Sweden, Bavaria and Saxony.
• „In 1814 he ended a war with the USA by making concessions and renegotiated with his European allies.
• „However, Castlereagh’s encouragement of his allies, this time backed up by some striking victories by British forces in Spain under Wellington in 1813, leading to an invasion of France in 1814, gave more credibility to Britain’s leadership and prevented the break-up of the coalition.

• „The previous five coalitions had either been defeated or had fallen apart.
• „In some ways the congress of Vienna was unsuccessful because it ignored principles such as liberalism and nationalism
• The Congress system had tension built into it – the fact that three great powers were autocratic and only Britain was democratic, so from the start there were going to be disagreements
• Castlereagh was also poor at communicating with others and especially the public, and this lead to many people misunderstanding him.

• Manage to keep a relationship with Russia.
• Didn't manage to keep a relationship with Austria.
• Doesn't keep allies together or sign a peace treaty.

Some similarties between Castlereagh and Canning : Castlereagh didn't sign it and although Canning kept up a short term relationship with Russia he couldn't keep all the allies together. Additonally, Canning didn't negotiate a major peace treaty. So overall they were quite similar.

• Canning didn't want the Congress system to continue, as he disliked it.
• Doesn't keep allies together or sign a peace treaty.

Not Similar : During Castlereagh’s time he set up the Congress of Vienna (to create a balance of power in Europe) however all the progression was stopped when Canning became foreign secretary, he stopped the system and withdrew British representation from the Congress of Verona. As he disliked the system.

• Tried to reconcile Spain with its colonies in order to block French expansion.
• Britain drove France out of Egypt during revolutionary wars.
• Works with France and Russia to defeat Ottaman fleet in 1827.
• He was unable to prevent French armies from invading Spain in 1823.

Some Similarties : Castlereagh did not want to see any extension of French influence, Canning also opposed intervention. Canning didn’t prevent French armies from invading Spain in 1823. Napoleon was defeated which was during Castlereagh’s reign of foreign minister. Canning tried to consolidate Spain with its colonies in order to block French expansion. Castlereagh was more successful.

• Cooperation with Russia in support of Greek independence.
• Works with France and Russia to defeat Ottaman fleet in 1827.
• Treaty with Russia in 1827 means Britian are not isolated from European powers.
• Long term not successful - 1829 Russia fighting with Turkey and are increating thier influence in the Balkans.

Some similarties : Castlereagh had a relationship with Russia but only to defeat Napoleon, but Canning kept cooperating in order to control their actions and prevent expansion.

• 1827 tried to create relationship to prevent Russian expansion.
• Canning lost Austrian support and withsrew Britain's representatives, from the Congress of Verona.
• 1827 - failure to create a relationship.

Some similarties - Under Castlereagh the Austrian relationship was good as they were part of the congress sysytem. However, Canning worsenend the relationship when he pulled Britian out of Verona, but did go on to repair the relationship in order to prevent Russian expansion.

• Canning supported an appeal for aid and sent a naval force and 5,000 marines to Lisbon.
• Britian was able to maintain trading links.
• Persuades Brazil to accept members fo the Portuguese royal family then becomng a republic (maintained trade link whilst upholding principle of monarchy)
• Stood out against European powers, impact negative as it isolates England.

Similar : Under Castlereagh in 1812 Wellington went to Portugal and Spain with troops to drive back Napoleons France. Under Canning, Britain sent 5000 marines to support Portugal. Although situations were different, the agendas were the same in defending Portugal.