Foreign and Imperial Policy

Franco-Prussian War 

• Gladstone judged neutrality to be the best policy 
• Prussian Chancellor = Bismarck 
• Bismarck manipulated a war against Napoleon III of France to further his plans for the unification of Germany
• France declared war on Prussia and was regarded as the aggressor
• British sympathies lay with Prussia as Gladstone mistrusted Napoleon 
• Fears were raised about Napoleon's ambitions to invade Belgium 
• Vital to British security because of its proximity across the channel
• Gladstone felt obliged to intervene and secured agreement that both sides would respect Belgium Neutrality 
• Treaty of London 1939
• Bismarck agreed as he had secured British neutrality through diplomacy
• He could now proceed with his plans to defeat France, annexe French Alsace and Lorraine 
• Then he could be able to declare the creation of a united Germany
• He did this in 1871 

Russia and the Black Sea Clauses 

• 1870 - Bismarck made himself an ally of Russia 
• He had encouraged the Tsar to pull out of the Black Sea Clauses of the Treaty of Paris 
• This had forbade them frm maintaining a naval presence in the Black Sea 
• British Foreign Secretary called a conference of the Great Powers in London in 1871
• It was agreed that no country could withdraw from part of the treaty 
• Face saving exercise on Britain's part
• Gladstone would not contemplate using even the threat of military force and there was little he could do
• Public opinion went aainst Gladstone for his inaction over Russia 
• New Germany emerged as the strongest European Power 
• Impressive military machine to back the country up 

The Settling of the Alabama Dispute, 1872

• Alabama = confederate warship fitted out in Britain
• Centre of a dispute a few years earlier during the American Civil War 
• It was used against the Northern States and damaged some of its ships 
• Britain was deemed to have broke its neutrality promise to stay out of the conflict
• Gladstone agreed to submit the claim to an International Court of Arbitration
• Decided that Britain should pay £3.25m to America
• Fraction of the original US claim of $9m
• Gladstone agreed and paid the damages instead of taking an aggressive response
• Detractors still thought it was too much
• British public saw it as a humilitating retreat and this cost the Liberals electoral support 
• Popular opiion was gathering against Gladstone's peaceful and ethical foreign policy
• Seemed to give a free hand to the Russians to moe their navy int the Black Sea
• Gave into America 
• Allowed the new Germany ascendancy in Europe 

The Eastern Question 

• Decline of the Turkish Empire (Ottoman Empire)
• Turkish Empire once stretched from south-east Europe, through the Middle East and into North Africa
• Could create opportunities for several other European powers
• France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Britain and Germany each became concerned 
• Suited Disraeli to commit himself to a policy of cotaining Russia's ambitions 
• Lend additional support to Turkey to achieve this 

The Eastern Crisis, 1875-1877

• Delicate balance of power existed between Russia, Turkey and Austria
• Treaty of Paris = promise from Turkey of better treatment towards the Christians within its empire
• Russia gave up any claim to protect them 
• Agreement was soon broken 
• Balkan Christians suffered persecution at the hands of the Ottoman Turks 
• Result = revolt in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1875 against the Turks 
• Following year, this spread to Bulgaria and later affected Serbia and Montenegro
• Balkan Nationalist Rising offered a chance for European Interference
• Great Powers tried to deals with the unrest by diplomatic means 
• Disraeli publicy expressed concern as he did not wish the Dreikaiserbund to exploit the situation
• Reluctantly accepted proposals made to the Turkish government but Turkey failed to cooperate
• Dreikaiserbund continued diplomatic efforts by issuing the Berlin Memorandum in 1876
• Signed by Germany, Austria, Russia, France and Italy 
• Demanded change and reform within the Turkish Government 
• Disraeli refused to be a signatory on the grounds that he was not consulted during initial discussions 
• He was anxious that it would weaken Turkey to th extent that they would not be able to stop Russia expansion 
• This would damage British interests 

• Disraeli went his own way and sent British naval vessels to the Dardanelle Straits
• Britain could not be marginalised in European decision making 
• Seen by Turkey as an indication of British support 
• The new Turkish Leader, Hamid, stemmed the Bulgarian revolt by using force of irregular troops
• Carrying out hideous atrocities against the Christian population in Bulgaria
• Strong reaction from Britain
• Extent of the atrocities was initially minimised by Disraeli 
• Scale of the horror was revealed by the Daily News
• Gladstone had made much political mileage out of it - The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East 
• Proposed to expel the Turks from the Balkans 
• Relatioship between Disraeli and Gladstone was at its most bitter 
• Disraeli felt that Gladstone had destroyed British unity at a time of crisis 
• Offered unnecessary encouragement to the Russians 
• Disraeli = indifferent ot he the sufferings, which caused moral outrage in Gladstone
• End of 1876 = Disraeli foreign policy actions had sabotaged a settlement of the Eastern Crisis
• Encourgaed the Turks to carry out atrocities and caused expressions of deep outrage at home 

The Conference at Costantinople, 1876

• December 1876
• Try and stem the worsening situation 
• Demands for Turkey to reform were rejected by the Sultan
• Disraeli refused to pressurise the Turks going against the advice of Lord Derby 
• Conference broke up and Russia declared war on Turkey in April 1877
• Acting on behalf of the persecuted Christians
• Disraeli would only remain neutral on the condition that Russia did not threaten British position in Egypt and the Suez Canal, or enter into Constantinople
• Public opinion turned in Disraeli's favour - outburst of jingoism and anti-Russian feeling 
• War was quickly ended 
• Treaty of San Stefano - Rusia proposed doubling the size of Bulgaria 
• Austria and Britain demanded a European Congress 
• Disraeli knew that Russia was exhausted financially and militarily 
• Postured by ordering the fleet to Constantinople 
• Few weeks later, Indian troops were moved into the Island of Malta 
• Derby resigned in frustration at Disraeli's brinkmanship - Salisbury became foreign secretary 

Treaty of Berlin, 1878

• Eventually agreed after a number of secret negotiatins
• Disraeli's main objective was to keep Russia out of the Med and reduce influence in the Balkans
• Treaty of San Stefano was broken up and a smaller state created and returned to Turkish suzerainty
• Agreement reached between Britain and Turkey 
• Britain received Cyprus and Turkey promised toleration of Christian subjects 
• Britain guarenteed Turkish dominions 
• Russia could keep a watch on Russia ship activity in the north and south of the suez canal
• Agreement between Austria-Hungary and Britain secured Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina 
• Independence of Serbia and Montenegro was guarenteed
• Serbia was enlarged 
• Congress of Berlin was a personal triumph for Disraeli 
• Successful as the Congress agreed to limit Russia's gains 
• Overall results strengthened Turkey in the Balkans and the front against Russia
• Averted full-scale war but placed many Christians under Turkish rule again 
• Austro-Hungarian occupation in the Balkans weakened the Dreikaiserbund 
• Led to the Great War, 30 years later 
• Disraeli returned claiming to have achieved 'Peace with Honour'

South Africa and the Zulu War, 1877-9

• The Colonial Secretary put pressure on the Dutch settlers to accept the annexation of the Transvaal by Britain
• Meant to be part of a bigger plan to form a South African Federation 
• Incorporating British and Dutch settlements, but as part of the British empire 
• British High Commissioner - Bartle Frere - disobeyed orders from London
• Got involved in a war against the Zulus 
• British force of 1,220 men were killed in 1879
• Several months before the situation could be recovered 
• Zulus were defeated at Ulundi 
• Disraeli was furious at the news of the war
• Given Colonial Secretary too much of a free hand and his own reputation suffered as a result 

Egypt and the Suez Canal

• 1875 - Disraeli acted decisively over the purchase of shares in the Suez Canal 
• Government of the Khedive of Egypt was on the verge of bankruptcy 
• Needed £4m to avoid insolvency 
• Disraeli consulted Queen Victoria who gave the purchase her blessing
• Money was raised through a loan with Jewish bankers (Rothchilds)
• Smart move by Disraeli
• Huge advatages in terms of development and control of British empire:
  •  
    • Britain negotiated a low rate for British shipping to pass through the canal
    • Helped to achieve cheaper imports and exports and so stimulated trade
    • Helped to establish a solid British interest in Egypt
    • Reduced the travelling time to India and the Far East 
    • Easy means of increasing military and naval forces in the Far East 

Disraeli and British India

• Trouble = Indian North-West Frontier with Afghanistan 
• Battle of wits between Russia and Britain as to who could gain control of Afghanistan first
• Disraeli wanted to encourage good relations with the Amir of Afghanistan so he would be sympathetic to British concerns rather than Russian ambitions
• Colonial Secretary was in charge of British policy in India 
• Lord Lytton was responsible for setting up a British mission in Afghanistan
• Lytton supported an expansionist policy in India
• Reservations from Salisbury and Derby about Lytton's suitability
• 1878 - Tsar sent a mission to Afghanistan 
• Lytton was ordered to take no action until all diplomatic chanels had been tried
• Lytton sent troops into Afghanistan and chased the Russians out 
• Deposed Sher Ali 
• A British mission was established 
• 1879 - Resentment against the British spilled over into a massacre of the centre mission
• Strong force of British troops was immediately despatched
• Order was not restored until 1880 
• Criticism of lack of control of Lytton 

Egypt

• 1878 - Egypt was on the verge of economic and political collapse
• Britain had considerable investments in Egypt and the Suez Canal
• Gross isuse of funds by the Khedive that was earmarked for infrastructure
• Khedive deposed in favour of his son 
• Put in place to restore financial stability and look after foreign investors
• Gave itself the power to pass reforms and cut expenditure
• However, this stirred up Nationalist feeling
• 1881 - an Egyptian Army Officer led a nationalist rebellion, seized power, formed a government and banned foreign intervention in Egypt 
• Gladstone sanctioned the Navy to join France and send warships to Alexandria 
• Egyptians prepared their defences but at the last minute, the French withdrew
• Confused orders led to an attack on Alexandria by the British fleet
• General breakdown of Law and Order
• Little option but to invade  Egypt alone, establishing Britain as a land power in the Middle East for the first time
• Nationalist feeling was short-lived 
• He was defeated by British troops, captured and deported 

• Gladstone intended to sort out the problem and withdraw from Egypt quickly 
• Justified his un-Gladstonian decision to overthrow the nationalist movement 
• He believed British interests and the position of Egypt to be of greater importance
• Bring order and stability to Egypt 
• Khedive continued to rule over Egypt in name, Egypt's freedom became little more than symbolic and ultimate power resided with British Consul-General 

The Sudan, 1883-1885

• Sudan was under the control of Egypt 
• Authority had been undermined by actions of a religious extremist - The Mahdi 
• 1883 - The Khedive of Egypt sent a force into the Sudan under a British officer to suppress the Mahdi 
• British Officer Colonial Hicks was killed 
• Khedive's army ambushed and trapped 
• Gladstoe expressed some sympathy for the Mahdi's position and his right to fight for freedom and self-government
• View that had little sympathy in 'Empire England'
• Gladstone could either attempt to complete the conquest or a complete evacuation 
• Decision was made by General Gordon to carry out the evacuation 
• View that Gordon had his own agenda, to refuse to withdraw until he had taught the Mahdi a lesson 
• Gordon held the Nile Valley against the Mahdi 
• Pushed back into Khartoum
• Gordon requested relief troops
• Unnecessary delay and the reinforcements arrived two days too late to save Gordon 
• Seen as a national hero who had been let down by the British authorities 
• Gladstone continued to withdraw from the Sudan, leaving the Mahdi in control 
• Peak of unpopularity for Gladstone 

Transvaal and the Boers:

• Zulus were defeate in 1879
• Sir Garnet Wolseley was made high commissioner of the Transvaal
• Became a crown colony instead of giving it the self-governing status promised
• Gladstone had strongly criticised the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 by Disraeli
• Exectation fro the Boers that they would have independence
• 1881 - Gladstone stalled on the issue of Transvaal independence 
• Considering setting up a South African Confederation
• Fighting broke out between the British and the Boers 
• Boers inflicted a humiliating defeat o the British 
• Gladstone could either send more troops or grant independence
• He compromised
• Independence with the British crown maintaining sovereignty
• Soon drooped after the angry reaction
• 1884 - British government finally recognised the South African Republic 

Afghanistan:

• Gladstone's intention was to withdraw from Afghanistan
• Dissuaded by the Indian Viceroy 
• Anxious not to create unrest on the border and allow the Russians to take advantage
• Gladstone agreed to continue the defence in Afghanistan 
• Felt the policy carried rsisk as the British did not have the control to ensure success
• 1885 - Russians seized Afghan town close to the Russian border
• Russians expected to get away with it 
• Gladstone threatened force and the Russians withdrew
• Agreed to aribitration 

• Signalled the end to a period of 'splendid isolation'
• Japan was an emerging industrial nation and naval power 
• Anxious abut the Russia military build-up in its sphere of influence
• If either Britain or Japan were attacked by more than one power, the other would help
• Japan recognised British interests in China and the Pacific 
• Britain recognised Japa's rights in Korea
• Agreement was reached over the size of the naval presence in the Pacific
• A naval force superior to that of any third power would be maintained 
• Allowed Britain to concentrate on its fleet nearer home
• Warning to Germany who had colonies in the Pacific

• Hostility between France and Britain over Britain's occupation of Egypt came to a head at Fashoda in 1899 and brought the two countries to the brink of war
• 1902 = most of these colonial issue had been settled
• It was not until this point that Britain felt ready to engage in new friendships
• France was prepared to lay aside resentment of Britain over Egypt 
• More anxious about the potential threat from Germany
• British alliance with Japan concerned Germany
• War between Japan and Russia could cause problems between France and Britain 
• Face of German naval build up = a stronger relationship with France would make sense for Britain
• Signing of the Entente Cordiale in 1904 was a clear reversal of British policy
• Sigified a closer involvement with Europe
• France recognised British occupation of Egypt and the Sudan
• Britain recognised French interests in Morocco
• France conceded defeat in dispute over fishing rights and received territory in Gambia
• Entente was not a defensive alliance, or an anti-German alliance 
• Simply a friendly agreement 
• Brought an end to British fears of any Franco-Russian naval cooperation 
• Moved Britain closer to the possibility of cordial relations with Russia 
• Minimised potential damage caused by the Russo-Japanese War 

• Upset the Kaiser and created tension between Germany and Britain and France 
• Slight shift in the balance of power in Europe 
• Britain avoided clarifying the extent of its allegiance to France 
• Situation of growing unease between old neighbours who had always been suspicious of eachother
• No further references to British isolation 
• Increasing tension and suspicion made relationship very difficult 
• Europe was brought on the brink of war on several occasions before 1914
• Grey aimed to strengthen Britain's new friendships with France and Japan 
• Lessen the mistrust between Germany and Britain
• Difficult with the build-up of German naval presence in several places worldwide 

• Kaiser tried to cause a rift between Britain and France 
• Also test the strength of their relationship 
• Morocco = few semi-independent territories remaining in Africa 
• France was keen to increase its sphere of influence there
• Adjacent to French algeria, had extensive iron or deposits, strategically important position at the entrance to the Med, and it had a weak ruler
• Kaiser visited Morocco, declaring support for its independence 
• Criticised French ambitions
• Kaiser called an international Conference in Spai to settle Morocco's position
• Grey came out in support of France's claims over Morocco, followed by Russia, Spain and Italy
• Germany was defeated and isolated 
• The Conference had brought France and Britain closer 
• Led to the start of informal Anglo-French military talks 
• Plans for possible future military actions were discussed
• Kaiser's action caused anxiety that Gerany was trying to establish domination of Europe
• Made Grey determined to continue support of France
• 1907 - Britain signed an Entente with Russia 
• Most areas of conflict were settled 

• Now possible to plan to concentrate Britain's Expeditionary Force in Europe
• 1911 - Frech troops occupied the Moroccan capital Fez
• Protect the Sultan from an internal revolt
• Kaiser claimed compensation for German citizens living in Morocco
• Sent a warship to the Moroccan port of Agadir
• Britain responded at once 
• Left in no doubt that Britain would come to the aid of France if needed
• Entente between Britain and France looked more like an alliance 
• Britain and France entered naval talks
• Anti-German feeling was developing in Britain 
• Neither side wanted war 

• 1908 - Austria took advantage of a revolt in Turkey and annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina 
• Roused nationalist feelings in Serbia
• Increased hostility towards Austria
• Stirred up Russian protests
• Balkans = not an area of immediate concern for France or Britain 
• Germany took the opportunity to undermine Russia by putting pressure on them to recognise Austria's annexation 
• British and French concerns about German ambitions were raised
• Russia embarked on a rearmamet programme to strengthen its position
• Cautious references were make to a Triple Entente between Britain, France and Russia
• Remained a diplomatic alliance 
• Emphasised the alignment of the European powers 
• The Triple Alliance was primarily defensive
• Neither system was made as a preparation for war, but an attempt to preserve peace

• Britan did involve itself indirectly in the Balkan wWars
• Attempt to prevent hostility escalating between Austira and Serbia
• The Balkan League of Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria defeated the Ottoman Turks 
• Finally chased them out of Europe
• Victory for Balkan Nationalism 
• Germany, Russia and Austria each had cause for concern at the potential power of the Balkans
• Austria was particularly concerned at the growing influence of Serbia 
• Grey tok the initiative and called a Conference of London to settle the territorial outcome of the war
• Carried out with an agreement between Britain, Germany and Austria 
• General satisfaction of the European powers
• Serbia and Bulgaria immediately fell out over their gains 
• Brief Second Balkan War
• Bulgaria was defeated and a large and powerful Serbia was created
• Caused Austria renewed anxiety
• Germany advised restraint
• Agreement in London involving Germany and Britain 
• Tensions had eased between them
• It was the calm before the storm