Factory Reform and Education in Britain 1815-1853

John Doherty:

• Leader of Manchester Spinners Union that became centre of 10 hour movement.
• Did not want anyone working more than 10 hours in factories, children/adults alike, but wanted to start with better rights for children.

• Michael Sadler - Tory MP and factory owner, tried to introduce Bill 1831 to regulate children's working hours, but lost seat.
• John Fieldon - believed if working class got better wages, would help economy.
• Richard Oastler - 'poor man's friend', Tory who led 10 Hour Movement, against 'Yorkshire Slavery'.
• Lord Ashley - Earl of Shaftesbury, Tory and then peer from 1851. 'Champion of Factory Reform' - responsible for Mines Act 1842.

• George Bull - Tory Parson
• Joseph Rayner Stephens - non conformist who also led the Lancashire Short Time Movement 1834.

Wordsworth and Robert Southey:

• Looked at pre-industrial period as a 'golden-age'.
• Believed industry robbed children of their childhood.

Thomas Babington Macaulay:

• Historian and MP, wanted reform on economic grounds.
• Believed damaged children were not effective workers.

1819 Factory Act:

Was the work of Peel, influenced by Robert Owen, but only for cotten mills:

• No children under 9 be employed (they wanted 10)
• 9-16 not to work more than 12 hours (they wanted 11)
• Could only work 5am-9pm with 1&1/2 breaks

No inspectors, magistrates to enforce, act was largely ignored!

• Short Time Committees - set up in West Riding, Lancashire and Sctoland. 1000s pamphlets issued, speakers advertised.
• The Factory Act - work of a radical called Hobhouse and a Tory:
  • 17-18 year olds work maximum of 12 hours per day.

Still no inspectors and difficult to determine ages b/c no official information until 1836 (Births Marriages Deaths Act)

• Petition signed by 130,000 sent to Parliament.
• Michael Sadler introduced 10 Hour Bill, asked to chair committee to collect evidence, but lost seat in 1832 general election
• Lord Ashley took up the cause

• Michael Sadler's Report Published - one sided paternalist/humanitarian; report highlighted the worst conditions, but very one sided. Government set up Royal Commission, led by Edwin Chadwick and John Southwood - took 45 days.
• Royal Commission - was very Utilitarian:
  • Human suffering led to ineffective workers
  • Good conditions meant efficiency
  • Children particulary vulnerable
  • Adults were not beneifitted, this re-assured industrialists
• Althorp's Factory Act - applicable to all textile mills:
  • No children under 9 to work in factories
  • 9-13 work only 8 per day, 2 hours education
  • 14-18 12 per day, between 5:30 and 8:30
  • 4 Inspectors paid £1000 salary

10 Hour Movement persisted; relay system used to keep factories open; adults not helped, no method of discerning childs age; no money for schooling and 4 inspectors not enough (1836, one died) 

• Royal Commission on the Employment of Women and Children in Mines:
  • Published their findings, first sketches of mines revealed.
  • Dangerous conditions, children of 5/6 yrs in mines, immoral (Humanitarians)
  • Many in House of Lords against this, as many were owners of mines - e.g. Lord Londonderry.
• The Mines Act - drafted by Lord Ashley:
  • Forbade employment of all women, and children under 10 in the mines
  • 1 Inspector for all mines

Not enough inspectors, no clauses on working hours, women annoyed they cannot work in mines.

James Graham's (Home Secretary) Factory Bill:

Wanted to restrict 8-13 year olds to 6 hours per day, and give them 3 hours education in Church of England schools.

Non-conformists and the Catholic Church objected to the monopoly of CofE education. 

BILL WITHDRAWN

• Oastler - mounted another 10 hour campaign in North, much striking.
• The Factory Act (Graham's) - Conservatives put this through, led by Graham:
  • 8-13 half timers work 6 & 1/2 hours.
  • Dangerous machinery fenced off.
  • Women restricted to 12 hours.
  • Factories allowed to operate for 15 hours only.

No sign of 10 hours restrictions that outdoor pressures desired.

• Trade Depression in 1847:
  • Demonstrations and strikes in the North.
  • Peel no longer in power, many conservatives felt they could vote as they pleased, and could repeal the Corn Laws.
  • Many workers only doing 10 hours b/c employers couldn't afford to pay them for any longer.
• Fieldon's Factory Act (10 Hour Act):
  • Women and young people allowed to work for 10 hours only.

Adult males still working over 12 hours.

• Factory Act:
  • Factories only open for 12 hours and must half 1 & 1/2 hour meal break
  • Saturdays factories close at 12pm

Effectively shortened the working mans day and gave them free-time.

• Coal Mines Inspection Act:
  
  • Mines with enough inspectors to manage them
  • Royal School of Mines set up, so there were trained inspectors.

8 major ones: Eton, Harrow, Westminster, Rugby, St. Pauls, Shrewsbury, Winchester and Merchant Taylor; lots of minor ones:

• For the elite - those who could afford the fees
• Currciculm based on classics, didn't include maths until 1800
• Some progressive teachers e.g. Thomas Arnold of Rugby, introduced French and Maths

Ancient foundations going back to 16th Century:

• Curriculmn also classics
• Fees charged, some free places for the poor

Fee paying, but much cheaper than Public:

• Newer, started by impatience with Public e.g. Liverpool Royal Institution School 1819 taught maths, modern languages and sciences.
• 1 in 4 working class educated in this way - no hint of charity or social control, not regulated by authorities.
• Parents regarded teachers as employees - fitted w. cl. lifestyle - children attended when it suited them

Only on Sundays, meant that it fitted in well with children working:

• Chapel's and Churches used as schoolrooms, teachers gave services for free.
• Sunday School Union created 1780's, by 1801 2,290 branches increased to 23,135 in 1851 with 2 million enrolled.
• Effectively 3/4 of working class children 5-15 attended.

However, no obligation for children to attend, and many parents objected to the religious aspect.

Dame Schools:

Run by elderley ladies, essentially glorified childminding!

Ragged Schools:

1844, Ragged School Union set up by Lord Ashley to provide basic education for children of city clusm, hoping to deter them from crime.

• The National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in Principals of the Established Church in England and Wales formed 1811 (Andrew Bell)/
• The British and Foreign School Society replaced the Lancastrian Society formed in 1808 by non-conformists.
• Bitter rivalry, but used the same teaching methods - monitorial system
• 3rd Group arrived in 1849 - Catholic Poor School Committee

• Lord Kerry's report - ' Returns on Elementary Education' showed:
  • 1.2 million (1/3 of children in England and Wales 4-12) attended private or voluntary school.
  • 1.6 million attended Sunday Schools.
• Factory Act:
  • Compulsory for all children to have 2 hours education per week.
  • Some factories had their own schools, other ignored/forced children to go to local schools after work.
  • No inspectors to enfore this
• Grants:
  • £20,000 grant for building schools, not a large sum but in the right direction - recognised government responsibility.
  • Money channeled to National and Lancastrain schools.

• Run by James Kay Shuttleworth (Doctor who had worked in slums of Manchester), checked how grants spent.
• Belief that poor would only improve with education.
• He believed better standards only possible with well trained teachers; schools to be inspected - set up teacher training colleges, four by the end of 1839.

1846 - Teacher Apprenticeships, £10 per year from age 13, and £20 from age 18:

• Had to pass Inspectorates exam
• Assisted the Master in teaching, hoped to provide link between Gentry and working class.

1850:

• 29 teacher training colleges, all partly financed through 'The Queens Scholarship'.
• Grants increased to £370,000. Expansion of 'Her Majesty's Inspectorate' to ensure grant spent wisely.

Positives:

• Accepted importance of elementary education & under state control.
  
• More children received basic education, laying foundation for future reform.
• Education Department created 1856 by Shuttleworths successor - Ralph Lingen.
• By 1880, education compulsory for all 5-10 years old.

Negatives:

• Little achieved in comparison to other areas.
• Few stayed in education past 11 years old.
• Unitarians and non-conformists opposed state influence/control.
• Many of the poor still did not go to school.