Ethnicity & Deviant Subcultures

• The Centre for Social Justice's report in 2009 challenges the idea that gangs are associated with ethnic minorities 
• Instead, gang members tend to reflect the ethnicity of the local population
• e.g. gangs in Scotland are mostly white and gangs in London are mostly black
• It could be said that the high presence of black communities in the UK reflects the high presence of black communities in deprived neighbourhoods, where gangs are more likely to form
• Could gangs be down to social class more than ethnicity?

• Nightingale studied young black males in Philadelphia 
• ARgued that they consumed mainstream US culture through media, sharing values e.g. money
• However, they were excluded (racially & economically) from achieving these goals, so turned to crime 
• Bourgois studied Latino drug dealers in New York and found that the 'anguish of growing up poor in the richest city in the world created an inner-city street culture where deviant practises become the norm
• Drug dealing was a way to survive and achieve respect
• Bourgois understood why they would not work a minimum wage job when they could drug deal in a million-dollar industry on their doorstep
• These two studies show a 'paradox of inclusion'
• They desire to be included by being successful, but this is difficult

• Alexander studied a group of Bengali youths (age 14-16) in inner-city London
• This was in the wake of a moral panic about 'the Asian gang'
• She found that they fought amongst themselves and against other ethnic groups
• Membership within these groups were constantly shifting so the 'gang' was often fragile
• She argued that the myth of the 'Asian gang' was created through the media but fuelled by general Islamaphobia
• These stereotypes were picked up by teachers, who projected the gang label onto groups who shared a common identity

• Studied black youths in inner-city schools
• Suggested social class and gender intesect with racism and racial stereotypes
• Found young African-caribbean males developed subcultures based on masculine images as a response to percieved teacher labelling and racism
• He identified three subcultures:

1. Rasta Heads - open confrontation

2. Warriors - Asian males who were anti-school but went unnoticed

3. Black sisters - Asian and African Caribbean who were pro-education

• A successul black male would be target for bullying, wheras educational failiure becomes a badge
• Four visible groups were identified:

1. Conformists (pro-school)

2. Innovators (pro-education, but anti-school, seeking other ways to achieve)

3. Retreatists (dropping out)

4. Rebels (formed subcultures, often based on rap)

• The majority were conformists but the rebels (18%) got the attention

• African Caribbean girls are more pro-education
• They adopted strategies to be successful, such as keeping their head down
• They would avoid subjects in which they felt the teacher was racist and support each other academically
• This was seen as a rational response

• Found negative peer relationships to be significant in underachievement for African Caribbean boys
• White boys underachieving related to low self esteem
• Asian boys had no positive peer support

• Muslim boys saw themselves as Muslim, not Pakistani 
• Being a member of their subculture gave them protection from racist bullying

• Rastafarians are associated with Jamacian/Caribbean culture, reggae, dreadlocks and clotthes in red, gold and green 
• These colours come from the flag of Ethiopia, as they have religious beliefs associated with African roots
• Hebidge saw this culture as froms of resistance to white culture and racism with roots in slavery
• Johal suggests some Brasians adopted a 'hyper ethnic' style, exaggerating their parents culture and giving them 'empowerment through difference'
• Issues such as marriage and diet meant some Brasians became selective about what they want to follow, known as 'code switching'

• Functionalists, feminists and the CCCS can be criticised as they don't consider the impact of race and ethnicity on youth subcultures
• Hebdige says there are clear relationships between black music, dance etc. but these are not explored further
• These sociologists are accused of being 'ethnocentric'
• Studies in the US have been less 'white focused' and consdered hip hop and 'gangsta rap' as subcultures
• However, these studies have only been carried out by black sociologists

• Rastafarian can be seen as resistance, but Brasians show more hybridity, blending Asian culture with British culture
• However, hanging on to some of their traditional culture can be seen as resistance, as they are resisting to assimilate (intergrate) into white British culture
• Mercer discusses the styling of hair and its symbolic meaning (e.g. afro, dreadlocks)
• Mercer says all forms of hairstyles can be forms of hybridity

• 'White wannabes' identified by Nayak as young white working-classmales who adopt the style and language of black culture 
• 'Modern primatives' ( found in the US and parts of Western Europe) and are described as a 'neo-tribe' rather than a subculture
• They focus on individuality and have body modifications (e.g. tattoos, piercings) as a way of expression
• Vale and Juno argue that this is a reaction to the powerlessness created by a fast-changing world, as it gives them a regained sense of power

• Can be seen as a positive (cultural exchange) or negative (cultural appropriation)
• e.g. the use of tattoos in modern primative's subculture (tribal artwork, Chinese letters)
• Hutnyk argues that Western subcultures may take away the meaning from symbols and use them superficially
• e.g. aspects of British culture have been imposed on other cultures, wheras aspects of other subcultures have been taken and used by British subcultures