America: Loss of 13 colonies

• Britain had new lands to govern + borders to defend after 7 years war.
• Attempted to raise revenue from the colonies by more effective collection of duties outlined by the Navigation acts (needed money to pay for expansion).
• Colonial protest erupted in 1760s (tyrannical rule): ‘no taxation without representation’.
• Townshend duties 1767: Massachusetts assembly published a denunciation of the duties for violating the principle of ‘no taxation without representation’ and boycotts were organised. 
• British military/naval presence increased in Boston from 1768 to ensure collection of duties and protect American Board of Customs Commissioners.
• Sons of Liberty (Sam Adams) opposed British taxation attempts= Boston Massacre 1770.

Boston Massacre:

• British repealed the Townshend duties, there was a significant number of loyalists in the colonies and there was a lack of unity between colonists.
• Reversal of policy- repeal of Townshend duties bar tea (still tyrannical).
• The patriots were more unified and drawn from colonial elite than the loyalists (loyalists drawn from minority groups).

• Tea act 1773; attempted to squeeze money out EIC with as a means of paying off some national debt (from 7 years’ war).
• This, as well as famine in Bengal and rising administrative costs, EIC faced bankruptcy.
• Act allowed EIC to trade directly with US (against mercantilist principle of only trading through British ports), hope that it would increase profits for company.
• Colonists saw it as another attempt to illegally tax them; Committee of Correspondence condemned it and encouraged boycotts.
• 1773; Sons of Liberty boarded 3 ships of East Indian tea and threw cargoes overboard.

The Coercive Acts 1774 and their impact:

•  Intended to isolate Boston and force patriots into submission.
• Followed by Quebec act (governance of Canada).
•   Seen as further evidence of Britain trying to erode their liberties and establish tyrannical rule.

Rebellion to revolution 1775-76:

• Colonial assemblies met at Continental congress 1774; congress supported the views of the radicals and called upon Massachusetts to arm for defence and proclaimed the right of each colony to appoint its own need for troops.
• Britain declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion in 1775; prepared for war.

Military action 1775:

• British led by General Gage: attempted a secret mission to Concord to destroy a military store but troops met volunteers at Lexington. They pushed onto Concord and destroyed the stores but only just survived due to relief soldiers.
• Bunker Hill: Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne sparked a bloody engagement- attempted a full-frontal assault of rebels. British won but had a lot of casualties/deaths.
• All colonies declared to be in a state or rebellion.

The declaration of Independence:

• Meeting of the 2nd Continental Congress in Philadelphia 1775.
• Congress decided to: issue paper money to meet costs of war and make Washington the commander of the new Continental army.
• 'Common sense' by Thomas Paine was published in 1776 and sold 12,000 copies, helped to cement the opinions of many (reconciliation wasn’t possible and Americans should look to the future and the establishment of a new/fairer system of government, tells rebels it's their duty to rise up).
• Declaration passed with votes in favour by 12 out of 13 colonies and the abstention of one, New York.

Articles of confederation:

• Congress appointed a committee of 13 to draw up a constitution for government and to fight the war.
• Could declare war, borrow and issue money, set treaties and alliances with foreign powers.
• Articles weren’t approved by congress till 1777.

British strengths:

• Increased its spending and military presence in colonies in an attempt to defeat the patriots.
• Royal navy able to reinforce troops, blockade and attack US ports.
• Stabilised economy initially but debts soon piled up.

British weaknesses:

• Logistically maintaining and supplying the troops in US was hard; due to loyalist support they maintained control by garrisoning ports and holding the seaboard.
• Had to stretch supply lines far; defeats at Saratoga + Yorktown = divided forces, elongated supply lines and delayed relief efforts.
• British generals suffered from lack of direction from London in terms of strategy.

American strengths:

• The formation of a new nation on democratic principles left the loyalists isolated; neutrals were now drawn to the patriots (British lost neutral support).
• Had territorial advantage; accustomed to the terrain and climate.
• Washington regrouped and retrained his forces numerous times; responsible for forming the Continental army.
• Continental congress unified colonies and formed a widespread mandate.

American weaknesses:

• Limited economic development due to being a newly formed nation.
• Reliant on paper money for currency as congress couldn’t levy taxes; inflated prices and unwillingness to accept paper notes.
• No large manafacture base; short on weapons.
• Lack of equipment, experience and organisation (British defeats occurred when supply lines were overstretched or lost control of naval waters).

General Burgoyne’s defeat at Saratoga, 1777:

• Burgoyne travelled from Canada into US but wasn’t joined by Clinton’s forces (overstretched and surrounded, negotiated with Gates and surrendered in October).
• News of the surrender contributed to France joining the war against the British.
• Burgoyne was overconfident; underestimated loyalist/neutral support joining along the way).
• Didn’t co-ordinate plan with Clinton and Howe; forced to surrender at Saratoga.

French and Spanish intervention:

• Franklin successfully persuaded the French to ally with Americans.
• French declared war on Britain in 1778, Spain allied with France in 1779.
• Long-term rivalry and possibility of reclaiming territory spurred the French on.
• Defeat at Yorktown largely due to French fleet intervening.

General Cornwallis’ defeat at Yorktown (1781):

• Washington led an army of 16,000 American/French troops into Yorktown and lay siege to the British for 3 weeks.
• Cornwallis surrendered in 1781; reinforcements arrived too late.
• Underestimated loyalist support in South; had to divide forces (weakened attacking line).
• French were strong enough to repulse the 1^st British fleet and Clinton’s relief force.

The decision to seek peace and accept the Peace of Paris:

• New ministry led by Sherburne commenced peace talks; clauses included: recognition of US independence and its new boundaries, division of imperial possessions between Britain, France and Spain.
• America gained good terms due to strong negotiation and the British concern to cement good relations with hope of a potential ally against the French.

Impact of the defeat on Britain:

Negative:

• Lord North resigned in 1782; coalition government formed.
• New ministry under Pitt.
• British trade disrupted as national debt was huge.
• Intervention of French and Spanish into the war was the most significant factor in the redrawing of British priorities and the decision to seek peace with the colonists.

Positive:

• Defeat didn’t lead to a prolonged recession; economic resilience of Britain.
• British trade with former colonies reached pre-war levels and value of exports to EU doubled.
• By 1780, altered Mercantilist system in Ireland to allow them to directly trade with British colonies.
• In 1782, Irish granted effective legislative independence as the British repealed the Declaratory act 1719.