African Cultures

The origins of Egypt, Nubia and Ethiopia can be attributed to the Late Stone Age [LSA], dating to c. 5000 BCE

Geographical matters - 

Physical:

• Climate & Cataracts -->
  • First cataract is called Aswan 
  • Environment & climate more desert like in Egypt than Nubia 

--> Catraracts = spots in the river where it gets rocky and one can no longer travel along it

Cultural:

• Race & Ethnicity -->
  • Material cultural evidence = Nubians bringing tribute, Tomb of Huy dating to c. 1330 BCE

Origins of Civilisation:

One of the questions at hand in regards to the situation is: what is Egypt? Is Egypt a Western civilisation?

• One argument on the other end of the debate this question raises suggests that Egypt is the origin of African civilisation {Afrocentrism}
  • A book suggestion for this is: "Nations negres et culture" written by Cheikh Anta Diop 

... But first... what is civilisation?

• Features:
  • Urbanism
  • Social specialisation
  • Shared "high culture" {i.e., writing, art, architecture}
  • Religion ideology

All this brings in the question of whether we should measure African societies with Western "yardstick in terms of social complexity? {Eurocentrism}

Egypt - Timeline:

• Badarian Culture (c.4500 - 4000 BCE)
  • Agro-pastoral society similar to those noted in Nubia at this same time
• Predynastic Period (3800 - 3100 BCE)
  • Urbanisation in Upper Egypt --> site = brewery at Hierakonpolis
  • Elite power at Hierakonpolis shown through agricultural bount and cattle symbolism
    • Material culture = Dynasty 0 - macehead of King Scorpion
  • Unification of Egypt by Narmer {by Kierakonpolis}
• Old Kingdom (2680 - 2134 BCE)
  
  • Religious ideology as seen at the likes of the pantheon and divine rule
  • This is the time the pyramids were being built 
• Middle Kingdom (2040 - 1640 BCE)
  • Bureaucratic state {urbaism}
  • Fortified broder with Nubia to the south 
    • Wanting to take control of Nubian resources {i.e., take the gold over trade for it}
  • Time period focuses more on taxation that pyramid building

Egypt - Timeline, Continued:

• New Kingdom (1550 - 1070 BCE)
  • Conquest and trade with Nubia and Ethiopia
    • Example: Hatshepsut's expedition to the Land of Punt
• Decline (1070 - 332 BCE)
  
  • Successive incursions by outside states such as the Kushites, Assyrians, Greeks, etc.

Nubia - Timeline:

• The Qustul State (3800 - 3100 BCE)
  • A-Group cemeteries --> social stratitification is similar to that of Predynastic Egypt which dates to the same time
  • Bruce Williams = Site of Qustul with an incense burner which depicts a burial ceremony heading into a palace like building and (the most controversial element) a white crown which is typically associated with Predynastic and Old Kingdom Egypt as well as a Falcon Deity
    
• Kerma (2400 - 1500 BCE)
  
  • Deffufa --> The oldest temple in sub-Saharan Africa, though this is up for debate, part of an urban centre, believed to be part of a palce, monumental type building
  • Middle Kerma shows evidence of elite burial 
    • Evidence of keeping H-G traditions, showing still a connection with the past
    • Classic Kerma shows an elite burial suggesting 'advancement' --> ruler buried with human skeletons rather than cattle {links to Nabta Playa burial}
  • Diplomatic relations with Egypt in northern regions, with Nubians controling their gold resources

Nubia - Timeline, Continued:

• Kerma (1500 - 1100 BCE)
  • Subjugated by New Kingdom Egypt 
    • Evidence of stele being erected to state taxation of Nubians and ocntrol of the gold resources
• Kingdom of Kush: Napatan Period (900 - 300 BCE)
  
  • Assimilation fo Egyptian ideology
    • Site example = Jebel Barkal (Napata)
      
• Kingdom of Kush: Meroitic Period  (300 BCE - 300 CE)
  
  • Example site includes pyramid tombs
  • Exuberance of economic specialisation, with evidence of industrial scale iron-working from 600 BCE
  • Suggested contact with the Hittites in what is now modern day Turkey
  • Trade focuses on prestige goods {refered to as "high culture" - necessary for a city state}
    • Trade with Egypt and stylistic importance as well as trade with Mediterranean world and regions further south in Africa 

Ethiopia - Timeline:

• D'MT (c.1000 - 500 BCE)
  • Agro-pastoralism established in the highland region
  • D'MT is lcoated between Kush and Sheba {D'MT is actually Damot but vowel were not necessary}
  • Geography = defensible plateaus 
  • Capital established at Yeha {pronounces Yee-Ha} showing urban influences from southern Arabia 
    • Similar time as Kishite kings invaded Egypt 
    • Evidence of all this comes from archaeological evidence such as stone slabs with Saba'an {Sheba} royal inscriptions 
• Aksum (100 - 960 CE)
  
  • Urban centre at crossroads of maritime and overland trade routes
    • Adulis port city of antiquity on the Red sea with links to Memphis, Petra, Jerusalem, Mecca, Bernice, Thebes, Meroe, Aden, Malao, Aksum & Zeila

Ethiopoa - Timeline, Continued:

• Aksum (100 - 960 BCE), Continued
  • Territorial expansion to control tarde and demand tribute
    • Aksum stele marks a royal burial which was later taking by Italians during colonial era and repatriated to modern day Ethiopia 
  • Excavations at Aksumite town of Beta Samati 
    
    • Coins minted by Aksumite rulers 
      • Coins depict series of rulers and allows for form chronological timeline of elites during this time
      • It is understood that the coins were used for trade with non-local imports [i.e., glass beads from the Mediterranean world and Amphorae specifically from the Roman world]
    • Basilica excavated at the town of Beta Samati
      • Christian place of worship, specially a type of Church which isn't all to surprising due to trade with the Romans after the establishement of Christianity after the council of Nicaea 

Ethiopia - Timeline, Continued

• Aksum (100 - 960 CE), Continued
  • Ge'ez inscription which translates to "Christ be favourable to us" suggests the inferance of a prayer therefore denotes local development by the ancient Ethiopians 
  • It is important to recognise that, even though, Christianity was being adopted in the Aksum area, that was being done in a very localised way
    • People in Aksum did not replace their previous religious ideology with that of Christian doctorine, but moreso integrated it into their lifestyles which already existed
    • Elites are noted to having adopted the practices more rapidly then commoners as shown archaeologically with Rock-hewn church in Lalibela dating from 1100 - 1200s CE

---> Overall, Afrocentrism today states that Egypt is the primordial geneis of African civilisations today and is essentially the cradle of modern civilisation; bringing in the argument of civilisation vs. globalisation as development of Nubian and Ethiopian 'civilisations' are linked to global networks {i.e., Babylonia, Elam, Assyria, Egypt & Dilmun}