A DIVIDED UNION? THE USA 1945-1970 (key issue 3)

• Aim: to achieve maximum publicity and end segregation in public facilities.
• Birmingham chosen as large majority of population were black Americans.
• Demonstrations began on 3 April 1963.
• Peaceful demonstration met with horrific violence by the police, led by Eugene 'Bull' Connor (police dogs, fire hoses).
• Almost 2000 demonstrators in jail.
• TV witnessed the events and showed the violence of the authorities.
• JFK gets involved and tries to mediate violence between the two parties - desegregation was eventually introduced in the city

• Aim: for jobs and freedom (passing of Civil Rights Bill).
• All key groups took part in organisation - NAACP, CORE, SNCC and SCLC.
• Authorities very worried - recalled 3000 police officers on leave and 1000 police officers from neighbouring locations.
• 2000 members of National Guard on stand by.
• 250000 demonstrators were involved, 80000 of which were white.
• Maximum publicity - Bob Dylan, John Lewis and Martin Luther King's 'I Have A Dream' speech.
• Malcolm X called it a 'farce on Washington'.
• It was televised across USA - brought together different sections of US society and put further pressure on JFK to move on civil rights.
• MLK's hopes seemed illusory when, in September 1963, four black girls were killed in a bomb attack.
• Movement stalled in late 1963 by assassination of JFK.

• Instrumental in securing release of MLK from jail in Atlanta.
• Had to be careful about approach because he faced opposition from white supremacists.
• Achievements:
  •  
    • Appointed five black federal judges.
    • Appointed his brother as Attorney General.
    • Appointed other black Americans to his administration.
    • Threatened legal action against state of Louisiana for refusing to fund schools that were not segregated.
    • Sent 23000 government troops to ensure that James Meredith (black student) could attend University of Mississippi.
    • Threatened to evict Washington Redskins unless they hired black players.
    • Introduced Civil Rights Bill to Congress in February 1963.

• CORE, SNCC and NAACP worked together with aim of increasing number of registered black voters in Mississippi (lowest in USA).
• Led to formation of Mississippi Freedom Party:
  • 80000 joined.
  • 30 freedom schools were established.
• Schools became targets of white racists:
  • Bombings and assaults (police involved).
  • 30 churches bombed.
  • Murder of project volunteers - James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner.
• Nevertheless, most saw protests as success when Voting Rights Act was passed in 1965.

The Civil Rights Act, 1964:

• Segregation in hotels, motels, restaurants, lunch counters and theatres was banned.
• The Act placed the responsibility on the federal government to bring cases to court where discrimination still occured.
• Any businessed engaged in transactions with the government would be monitored to ensure there was no discrimination.
• The Fair Employment Practices Committee was established on a permanent basis.
• The Act created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to implement the law.

• Civil Rights Act did not mean that black Americans could vote.
• Selma March was organised:
  • Met with fierce resistance.
  • Media showed police brutality.
  • Public opinion firmly behind King and the CRM
• President Johnson put forward a bill that would enfranchise black Americans:
  • Ended literacy tests.
  • Federal agents able to monitor registration.
• By 1965 250000 black Americans had registered.

• MLK killed on 4 April 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee while campaigning for equal rights for black refuse collectors.
• White racist, James Earl May, was arrested and jailed for the crime.
• Impact:
  • Outburst of violence across the country.
  • 46 killed, 3000 injured.
  • Demonstration in more than 100 cities.
• 1968 - Vietnam War takes precident over civil rights.

• Most famous member of Nation of Islam.
• Travelled across the USA gathering support.
• Helped set educational and social programmes aimed at black youth in the ghettoes.
• Re-connected black American with their African heritage.
• Influenced other leaders like Carmichael.
• Spread Islam into the black community.
• Superb organiser.
• Brilliant oratory skills helped increase membership of Nation of Islam to 100000 in the year 1952-64.
• Helped raise the self-esteem of black Americans.

• Originally a political slogan.
• Late 1960s - covered a range of activities that aimed to increase the power of blacks.
• Associated with Stokely Carmichael and other SNCC members.
• Rejected white help.
• Separatism or change corrupt power structure.
• Create own political force.
• Have pride in African Heritage.
• Slogan - 'Black is beautiful'.
• 1968 Olympics:
  • Athletes wore part of movements uniform.
  • Smith and Carlos wore and showed symbols of black pride and poverty.
  • They were banned from athlete's village and sent back to the USA.
  • World became aware of the Black Power movement.

• Founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in October 1966 in Oakland, California.
• Heavily influenced by Malcolm X.
• Soul on Ice (1967) set out aims of the Panthers in a ten-point programme.
• Prepared to use revolutionary means to achieve goals..
  • Would form alliances with radical whites if it bought down 'establishment'.
• Advocated an end to capitalism and the establishment of a socialist society.
• Constantly targeted by the FBI and by 1982 the black Panthers had disbanded.