1642-49 From Civil War to Revolution

•     Traditional explanations:
•     Royalists: north and west of England, less advanced economically
•    Parliamentarians: London and south-east, wealthiest parts of country
•    The Problem of Neutralism
•   Vast majority of PN tried to avoid taking sides in the war
•   Neutralism grew as war progressed
•  1645 local gentry in 10 counties made Clubmen Associations
•  Clubmen aimed at using military force to keep royalist & parliamentarian armies out of their counties

•  ROYALISTS
•  Feared Parliaments attacks on King would lead to widespread social revolution & eventual anarchy
•  Felt the established Church must be defended
•  Feared religious radicalism had been released by Pym
•  PARLIAMENTARIANS
• Feared that King, misled by evil advisers had been making attempts to destroy Parliament and English liberties
• Committed to reducing or abolishing bishops power
•  Therefore, religion was a key factor

• ·      Both sides sometimes resorted to confiscation of opponent’s property and stealing
• ·      ROYALISTS
• ·      Charles reliant on gifts from wealthy royalists
• ·      Royalists eventually copied parliamentary methods but less successful
• ·      Often relied on Free Quarter- taking of good promising owners would be compensated

• ·      PARLIAMENT
• ·      Monthly assessment: direct tax on income and wealth
• ·      Excise tax: tax on range of goods including beer and wine
• ·      End of 1640s MA collecting £90,000 a month
• ·      Gentry eventually supported Parliament as their army was better and more regularly paid
• ·      Meant were less likely to resort to plunder
• ·      However 1645 growing discontent among parliamentary supporters about crushing      taxation that PN was now paying
• ·      Parliament set up County Committees to supervise collection of taxation
• ·      These became hated as local gentry saw them as “social upstarts”

Consequences: Parliament's financial organisation

• ·      Had some negative effects on Parliament
• ·      Both sides of PN desperate to end taxation of war
• ·      Also concerned at how County Committees had destroyed local independence of gentry
• ·      PN desperate for a speedy settlement that would restore normality
• ·      PN also desperate to disband NMA
• ·      Fears of growing religious and political radicalism in NMA was even more vital that it be disbanded quickly

• 
   
• ·      Factors that allowed Parliament to win:
• ·      Greater finances
• ·      Control of London and SE England
• ·      London centre of printing- easier to produce propaganda
• ·      Control of navy: prevented Charles receiving supplies from Ireland
• ·      Alliance with Scots Covenanters
• ·      Weakness in royalist leadership
• ·      Parliamentary became more likely during war but WASN’T inevitable until 1645
• ·      June 1645: King’s main army destroyed at NAESBY

• ·      Royalist attempts:
• ·      Sept 1643: Charles signed CESSATION with Irish Rebels, Irish troops would come and fight on royalist side
• ·      This was propaganda disaster for Charles when made public
• ·      Troops of little use
• ·      Parliamentary attempts:
• ·      Sept 1643: Parliament signed alliance with Scots Covenanters
• ·      Scots would provide army of 21,000
• ·      Pym also established COMMITTEE OF BOTH KINGDOMS to coordinate finance & fighting of war

·       

• CIVIL WAR IN SCOTLAND
• Not all Scottish nobles were Covenanters
• Earl of Montrose led royalist forces against Covenanters in Scotland & won no. of battles
• Sept 1645: Battle of Philiphaugh: Covenanter army crushed Montrose's forces
• Ended Charles' military hopes in Scotland

• CIVIL WAR IN IRELAND
• Outbreak of Irish Rebellion made civil war more complicated through religion
• War in Ireland particularly brutal
• 1642: Catholic rebels formed Confederation: now known as confederates
• Opponents were Protestants of Ulster commanded by Earl of Ormond
• Sept 1643: Ormond signed 1 year truce under Charles' order allowing Irish troops to fight for King
• Troops had little impact
• Reinforced that Charles was sympathetic to Catholics
• Sept 1646: Confederate army defeated Covenanters giving Confederates back control of Ireland
• By 1646 Confederates unwilling to give further help to Charles

How important was Parliamentary leadership in winning war?

• Charles was poor war leader, allowed quarrels to develop that obstructed war effort
• E.g. poor leadership: Battle of Edgehill Oct 1642
• Didn't take opportunity to take London after Parliamentary forces retreated
• However Parliamentary leadership just as split

By 1643

• "Peace Group"- wanted settlement, unhappy seeing King humiliated
• "War Group"- felt King must be defeated in war & have harsh conditions imposed
• Dec 1643: death of Pym deprived Parliament of leadership
• Splits became more intense
• 1644: Battle of Marston Moor: Parliamentary victory meant Charles lost control of northern England
• HOWEVER
• "War party" in Parliament appointed military leaders based on social status
• EARL OF ESSEX & EARL OF MANCHESTER
• 1644: Essex's entire force captured
• 1644: Manchester allowed royalist army to withdraw even though near victory
• End 1644: peace negotiations failed as Charles confident he might win

• Feb 1645: NMA Ordinance
• Parliamentary Army of 21,000
• Commanded by Thomas Fairfax
• April 1645: Self-denying ordinance
• All MPs to give up military commands
• Get rid of incompetent commanders (Essex & Manchester)
• Now general determination among MPs to end war
• KEY FACTOR IN PARLIAMENTARY VICTORY
• June 1645: Battle of Naesby: Charles' main army destroyed
• Parliamentary victory now inevitable
• May 1646: Charles surrenderd to Scots
• Greatest concern among MPs now was radicalism of NMA

• July 1646: Charles presented with NEWCASTLE PROPOSITIONS
• Included: Triennial Parliaments
• Parliament nominate King's chief ministers
• Parliament to control militia
• Anglicanism abolished, no toleration

• Majority of PN desperate for permanent settlement 
• Would return to traditional government
• Overwhelming fears of radicalism in NMA
• MPs and gentry want to disband army ASAP
• Thought permanent settlement was inevitable 1646-47

• Charles had no intention of giving up powers
• Saw all enemies of traitors
• Felt he lost war because he gave up divine powers
• Knew enemies were deeply divided
• Didn't want to accept Newcastle Propositions- logic to this
• Charles seemed to be being proved right

How did religious radicalism develop in NMA?

• 1640s breakdown of religious censorship as quarrel between King and PN resulted in collapse of authority
• Breakdown allowed radical groups to expand
• Majority of NMA just wanted pay arrears and indemnity
• Cavalry were more educated: 
• Felt their lives had been changed by army experience
• NMA had defeated King- believed they were an "instrument of God"
• Saw themselves as "army of Saints"
• "Independent" beliefs grew among many soldiers
• Prepared to accept national church but each congregation to decide on own form of worship
• Cromwell increasingly seen as spokesman of Independent religious sects
• REACTION OF MPs
• Horrified at developments in Army
• "Gangraena"- document about religious extremism in army revealed fears of MPs and PN

• By 1645: Cromwell incresingly attacked by Parliament for promotion of soldiers with radical religious views
• He was an "old style puritan"
• Believed "godliness" could be found in all religious radical groups
• Believed England could be a godly nation
• POLICY OF PROMOTION BY MERIT
• Attacked social hierarchy
• Horrified MPs
• One hand he was social & political "conservative"- wanted return to traditional forms of government 
• Other hand wanted some form of religious liberty for radical groups & to eventually create "godly" nation

"POLITICAL PRESBYTERIANS"

• Wanted speedy settlement with King
• Wanted national Presbyterian Church settlement
• Feared growing radicalism in Army
• Aimed to Disband Army

"POLITICAL INDEPENDENTS"

• Wanted strict conditions imposed on King
• Accept state church but should be some external liberty of worship
• Close links w/Army- only they could guarentee their demands

"LEVELLERS & POLITICAL RADICALISM"

• Based in London, John Lilburne & Richard Overton
• Existing forms of government should be replaced with more democratic system
• Belief all men are born equal

Why did the Army emerge as a Political Force?

• Blame lies with Political Presbyterian MPs
• Assumed they could disband NMA with no pay arrears
• Insult to honour of Army
• Several petitions sent by army w/ help of Cromwell to Parliament
• Majority of demands were material (pay arrears)
• Owed £3m in arrears
• Would've settled for less
• DID NOT SEEM LIKE THEY WOULD EXPLODE INTO REVOLUTIONARY ACTION
• REACTION OF POLITICAL PRESBYTERIANS IN PARLIAMENT
• March 1647: Parliament issued "Declaration of Dislike"
• Ordered NMA to disband at once
• No indemnity offered
• PP began attempt to raise new army led by Presbyterian officers
• They overreacted to moderate demands of Army

• May 1647: MPs voted to disband the Army with 8 weeks pay arrears
• Too late- Army felt it's honour had been insulted
• Attack on Army by PP turned them into political force
• May 1647: Army issued "SOLEMN ENGAGEMENT" -refused to disband until grievances listened to
• June 1647: "Declaration of Army"- set out its political demands
• Regular parliaments, religious liberty
• Punishment of leading PP's
• References to "free-born Englishmen" Influence of Levellers?
• July 1647
• Army occupied London, PP leaders fled
• Army emerged as dominant political force
• Made settlement more difficult

What was Cromwell's role in politicalisation of Army?

• He was torn between his two instincts
• Natural political "conservative"- deeply concerned about radicalism in Army going out of control & didn't want any major changes to society
• Religious radicalism- he wanted to see religious liberty established and believed Army was an "instrument of God"
• He felt unless he took control of demands radicalism would go out of control
• This is why he agreed to capture the King 
• Cromwell and his son in law HENRY IRETON seen as main spokesmen of Army

June 1647

• These were drawn up by Ireton 
• Parliament would nominate King's advisers for 10 years
• Bishops remain in national church but lose power to force attendance at Church
• Biennial Parliaments
• Some Leveller grievances would be redressed
• Charles would remain at heart of government, Anglican Church would remain
• They reveal Ireton & Cromwell's desire to return to traditional forms of government 
• Charles has been criticised for not accepting these
• He didn't realise only the Army could enforce a settlement
• He began to play Army off against Parliament
• It was Charles betryal of Army 1647-48 that cost him his life
• Charles believed he had more power than he actually did 
• He had a "lack of political reality"

By October 1647

• Junior officers becoming disillusioned with lack of progress in final settlement
• Junior officers wanted wide range of reforms
• Growing suspicisons among this group that Cromwell & Ireton were pursuing selfish motives
• These feelings were exploited by the Levellers
• Levellers & Leveller propoganda began to infiltrate lower ranks of army
• Oct 1647: THE CASE OF THE ARMY TRULY STATED
• Produced by Levellers
• Attack on Army grandees for not pushing for radical political reforms
• How did Cromwell & Ireton react?
• Increasingly concerned about the demands of some agitators & their leveller allies
• However trying to crush Leveller influence in Army might provoke a mutiny agaisnt senior officers
• Conviced Charles even more that his enemies were falling apart

• This was Levellers blueprint for a future settlement
• All men born equal
• Complete freedom of worship
• No mention of role of King or House of Lords, basically arguing for a democratic republic
• Levellers began a campaign in Army to have agreement accepted as plan for future settlement
• Cromwell & Ireton increasing fear of Army Mutiny

Oct-Nov 1647

• Cromwell desperate to maintain Army unity
• Cromwell had no intention of accepting the agreement but during debates he emphasised that both sides could find common ground
• He spoke little in the debates Ireton was left to defend the grandees against agitators
• Most arguments based around Ireton & the agitators on the franchise 
• Ireton argued it must be based on ownership of property
• Some Levellers pushed for full adult male franchise
• Others argued men recieving charity should be excluded
• Reveals key weakness of Levellers- unable to agree on a common programme
• Opposing views of agitators & grandees couldn't be reconciled
• Putney debates ended as Cromwell realised not much more could be gained and Charles actually escaped from Army control November 1647

24 December 1647: PP MPs presented Charles with 4 Bills

• Immediately rejected by Charles
• Charles instead signed an "Engagement" with Scots Covenanters
• This would:
• Introduce Presbyterian Church as national church in England 3 years
• Charles provided with army of 20,000
• Scots did realise however that Charles' promises were worthless
• Would now be difficult for Charles to appeal to English supporters as a defender of Anglican Church
• January 1648: Parliament pass "VOTE OF NO ADDRESSES"- all negotiations with King to be broken off
• Charles had temporarily reunited Parliament and the Army against him
• Many MPs were horrified by King's actions, knew Charles was planning a series of royalist risings

• Why was there no negotiated settlement 1646-1647?
• 1. Terms offered to Charles unacceptable to him
• Not prepared to give up prerogative rights
• Felt he made enough concessions 1641
• 2. Charles aware there was growing resentment throughout nation at "parliamentary tyranny"
• Hatred of monthly assessment/excise taxes
• Hatred of County committes
• Hatred of Army
• 3. Little agreement among vicors of 1646 about peace terms
• Fully Presbyterian Church would've pleased most MPs but not the Political Independent MPs or Army

• Charles cut off from political and military realities
• Could only see the divisions of his enemies
• Many Covenanters unhappy that he refused to sign the Covenant 
• NMA discipline had been reasserted
• Most of PN wanted settlement, didn't necessarily support King's actions
• June 1648: Scots Army invaded N.England
• August 1648: Battle of Preston
• NMA crushed Scots Covenanter Army 
• This ended the Second Civil War
• BUT: August 1648- Vote of no addresses overturned in Parliament
• MPs aware that hatred & fear of NMA, high taxation and religious radicalism were far more important than distrust of the King

• Sept 1648: Parliament began negotating with King at Newport (Newport Negotiations)
• Evidence suggests they might have been near to agreement
• But Charles refused to abandon the Prayer Book for a "Directory of Worship"
• Charles made comments about no being bound to a mock treaty
• Could have been planning to decieve them again?
• Many prominent Political Independent MPs now prepared to deal with the King- becoming concerned with rumours of radicalism in Army
• THEREFORE superficially the prospects of a settlement looked closer than ever
• But for Cromwell and Ireton this was the moment of truth- attitudes had changed

• Army leaders began to support some of the views of ordinary soldiers
• Republicanism became serious political solution
• May 1648: At a "godly prayer meeting" there was a promise to bring Charles to account for his crimes
• At first Cromwell didn't play a big part as he was fighting in 2nd Civil War
• Fairfax refused to become more politically involved
• The main instigator of events over the next few months would be Ireton

• 20th Nov 1648: Remonstrance of Army
• Presented to Parliament, demanded King be brought to justice
• 6th Dec 1648: Prides Purge
• Colonel Thomas Pride with 1000 NMA soldiers surrounds Parliament buildings
• 45 MPs arrested, 186 secluded, 86 withdrew in protest, 80 stayed away
• Only 71 MPs left to bring King to justice "RUMP"
• 6th Jan 1649: "Rump Parliament" establishes High Court Of Justice to try King for high treason against people of England
• 30th Jan: CHARLES IS EXECUTED
• March: Act abolishing monarchy and House of Lords is passed
• May: Rump declares England to be a Commonwealth

Why did the Army demand the death of the King?

• Atttidues of most MPs by late 1648?
• "Conservative" case for compromise strengthened
• Rebellions revealed popular hatred of parliaments attempts to reform religion
• This is why PP's in Parliament took lead in restarting negotiations with King
• Also explains why Vote of No Addresses was repealed and why NMA's REMONSTRANCE was rejected
• Even some Political Independent MPs agreed to restart negotiations- many concerned about the rumours of radicalism in NMA about bringing King to justice
• The Army and "Providence" by late 1648
• Here politicalisation of NMA reached its logical conclusion
• Charles' negotiations with Scots and secret Engagement proved he couldn't be trusted
• Therefore pointless to negotiate as he couldn't maintain any agreement 
• The Army claimed he had forfeited his right to be regarded as God's anointed
• By rejecting God's verdict in the 1st Civil War he had rejected God himself

• Drawn up by Ireton who played lead in bringing King to trial
• Even Ireton was unsure about what to do with the King if he was put on trial
• There was no mention of the abolition of the monarchy
• PRIDE'S PURGE DEC 1648
• After the Purge only 71 MPs were left to carry out the will of the Army
• At this point it was unclear what would happen next
• Cromwelll still tried to persuade the King to make concessions but he refused 
• Cromwell intrepreted this as PROVIDENTIAL sign he had been waiting for
• He now pushed for a public trial, Charles must be found guilty and executed as imprisonment would leave him to plot
• However no one was really sure of what to do after Charles was dead
• It was 2 months after his execution that the step was taken to abolish the monarchy and establish the republican Commonwealth
• Seems main reason for abolition of monarchy was lack of suitable replacement for Charles

• Rump establushed High Court of Justice to try the King, House of Lords objected 
• Rump said it could pass laws without them
• Charles refused to recognise the Court for a week and was sentenced to death for "drivers and high crimes and treasons"
• Only 59 commissioners signed the death warrant- may have been forced to by Cromwell & Ireton

• No hint of any mass popular enthusiasm for English Revolution
• Charles was actually more popular at the time of his death than any other
• Day before Prides Purge most MPs said negotiations with King should continue 
• Key feature of Revolution is that it was carried out by a minority 
• By late 1648 Cromwell and Ireton felt there was no option other than to execute the monarchy
• Why was he executed?
• Much of the blame lies with Charles himself 
• Emergence of radicals especially in Army was major factor
• Two key factors were NECESSITY and PROVIDENCE
• Necessity: Distrust of the King and lack of any alternative settlement 
• Charles would never agree to any kind of settlement 
• An agreement with Charles was impossible and there was no alternative
• Providence: To Army victory in war had been decided by God's judgement 
• By restarting war Charles had mocked God's judgement therefore he was a man of blood
• This was what drove men like Cromwell

• Levellers
• Most important group to appear during Revolution
• John Lilburne, John Wildman, William Walwyn and Richard Overton
• They began to publish a stream of pamphlets
• In autumn 1647 they collaborated with militant army agitators producing "THE CASE OF THE ARMY TRULY STATED" and the first "AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE"
• They played a major part in the Putney debates
• Cromwell and Ireton feared that if they ignored them it might lead to an army mutiny
• HOWEVER: Cromwell aware ordinary soldiers support for Levellers depended whether they got paid or not
• Cromwell also aware that it was fear of Levellers that was dangerous 
• When an army mutiny happened it was easily crushed: shows Leveller's impact was more exaggerated

• 14th Dec 1648- 13 Jan 1649
• Ireton and Cromwell probably allowed these debates to take place as they wanted to ensure army unity as the trial of King was about to take place
• Levellers had drawn up "AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE"
• They hoped Rump would accept it and dissolve itself so more democratic elections were held
• When it was obvious Rump wouldn't carry out reforms Levellers felt betrayed
• Leveller's anger mainly directed against Cromwell and they wrote more pamphlets
• Feb 1649: Lilburne and Overton were arrested & sent to Tower of London
• Still issued a third "AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE"
• April/May 1649: Increasing discontent in Army over pay arrears 
• Mutinies took place in Army but were easily crushed
• After this little heard from Levellers again
• Rump ensured Army had regular pay

• Most common arguments between Levellers:
• Existing political establishment should be replace with one 'agreed by the people'
• All men equal and government was based on consent of people
• Some wanted monarchy and House of Lords abolished
• Complete religious toleration
• All equal before the law
• The most comprehensive and radical programme to appear during Revolution

• Thought of themselves as the "True Levellers"
• Followers of Gerald Winstanley
• Attempted to set up communities that cultivated the land in common
• First Digger Commun 1649 chased out by property owners
• They were quickly destroyed by local opposition

• The Fifth Monarchists
• Most powerful of the Millenarian groups
• In early years of Republic posed real threat to the state
• Believed there would be 4 great earthly monarchies with fourth monarchy being reign of ANTICHRIST
• After this King Jesus would return and end the world
• They were influential in the Army, led by Colonel Thomas Harrison
• He was most vocal senior officer in demanding death of King

The Effect of the Radical Political and Religious Groups on the English Revolution

• The Levellers
• Their influence on NMA overall was small
• Many soldiers who supported them were only concerned with getting their pay back
• When they were paid Leveller influence died down
• They didn't propose on giving the vote to women 
• They rarely agreed on social/economic reforms
• Little support was given to them

• The Diggers
• A small, insignificant minority of people

• The Fifth Monarchists
• Influenced Army's demand to try the King and execute him, had even greater influence 1653

What was Cromwell's opinion of the radical groups?

• Desired wide religious toleration especially for all Protestants who did not disturb public peace
• Also assumed the fear of Levellers was greatly exaggerated
• Wished to preserve hierarchy of society
• This is why he was keen to persecute the Levellers
• Fear they created smong gentry made his aim of achieving religious liberty more difficult
• Also why throughout this period Cromwell was in a dilemma
• Wanyed religious liberty and some reform but the PN exaggerated the threat of radicals & viewed any form of toleration as leading to chaos and anarchy

• It was fear of radical groups that was important
• None of them achieved more than a temporary, local popularity
• Most important group were the Levellers but in many ways their influence was negative
• Fear of Levellers encouraged the growth of "conservatism" throughout the period
• Meant the PN became even more desperate for a return to traiditonal forms of government