Understanding

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Define scientific
Based on empirical observation and experimentation - fact based rather than tradition, religion or guesswork
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Define progress
Continuous stream of improvement regarding patient care and well-being as well as the development of cures
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Main argument
Not purely scientific progress although did play a big part
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First paragraph topic
Ways in which science has contributed
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What is significant about the Enlightenment?
It encouraged the use of reason rather than religion
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How did this change people's perspective?
Made them view God as an intelligent designer rather than all powerful
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When did Edward Jenner develop his vaccine?
1796
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Why was it significant?
Because it showed someone combining folklore with scientific tests and coming out with a proven theory
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Who developed percussion theory?
Leopold Auenbrugger
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When did he do this?
1761
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What inspired him?
His father tapping beer bottles
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What was this progress from?
The theory of the humours
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What is the topic of paragraph 2?
What other things contributed to the progress of medicine
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When are where was the preventative program?
Germany in the 1920s
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What inspired it to run?
Both the incurable nature of TB and the high death rate of WWI
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What was its main tool?
Education
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How did it contribute to the progress of medicine?
It improved the health of the country overall and the public's knowledge of basic hygiene
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What kind of progress was this?
Social rather than scientific
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Which historian wrote about quack doctors?
Barry Smith
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What did he argue?
That they did less harm than registered practitioners
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Why did he argue this?
Because quack doctors did not actually hurt their patients whereas experimental treatments sometimes did, and also because quack doctors provided relief at a low cost in the form of comfort and support when there was no cure for TB
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What negative aspect did these doctors have?
Many were exploitative
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What is the topic of paragraph 3?
How the asylum system was not progressive for medicine
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What year was the Lunacy Act?
1845
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What did Michel Foucalt call this period?
The Great Confinement
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Why did he call it this?
Because he said it was a period characterised by imprisonment - increase in number of prisons, workhouses and asylums saw those on the edges of society being targeted as an attempt to control them
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What methods of control were introduced after the influx?
Restraint chairs and straightjackets
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Why was this not progressive?
There was a lack of interest in understanding the illnesses they faced and only control
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What topic is paragraph 4 on?
How people refusing to accept developments slowed progress
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Which historian is this section on?
Mark Jackson
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What did he argue?
That 18thC England did not see traditional methods of medicine replaced by new and innovative treatments
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What example did he use?
The continued domestic tradition of using animal and herb products
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When did James Lind do his experiment and what was it on?
1747 and scurvy
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When was it implemented?
1765
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What was the reason for the delay?
His superiors being too stubborn to accept that a lowly naval surgeon could have come up with such a simple cure
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What topic is paragraph 5 on?
How some medical developments led to unexpected problems
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Which historian is this on?
Lois Magner
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What did her research show?
That middle and upper class infants were developing scurvy from being put on sterilised cow milk because it had no vitamin c, although it had been shown to reduce infant diarrhoea
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Main argument of consumerism essay
That it has not increased social equality
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Topic of paragraph 1
How consumerism has contributed to gender equality
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How did it initially increase it?
Through creating products that would ease housework, thus allowing women more time for leisure
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Who wrote about the impact on political influence?
Dietlind Stolle
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What did she saw consumer action was good for
Changing governmental and corporate action
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Which form of action was particularly effective?
Boycotts
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Which two historians discussed it in relation to the two spheres theory?
Victoria De Grazia and Ellen Furlough
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What did they suggest?
That consumerism allowed women into a place they were not before - the public sphere
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What do recent gender historians say on this?
That the two spheres theory is too simplistic and that in reality many women were not only limited to the private sphere in history
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How do you dispute this?
Its true but at the same time many were so this factor is still important
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Why was it detrimental to women?
It encouraged criticism of them
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How were they depicted in the early 20thC?
Irrational and weak
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What happened with the discovery of kleptomania?
Women were portrayed as 'easy targets'
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What else were they accused of?
Having a lack of morality and self-control
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What happened with the increase of advertising?
A rise in the objectification of women especially through high sexualisation of models
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What positive developments have happened more recently?
Positive ad campaigns such as Dove 'love your body'
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What is the topic of paragraph 2?
That class equality has not increased, but that the main detrimental effects happened later than gender
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When did class inequality develop?
End of the 20thC
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What criticism was prevalent in the 18thC?
Conservatives argued that consumerism was disrupting the social hierarchy as it allowed lower class people to adopt higher class lifestyles
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Which historian is this section?
Peter Stearns
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What did he say?
That there was an attitude in Europe that the working class 'did not deserve' consumerism and that embracing it showed a lack of restraint and bad character
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Why were these negatives actually positives?
Because they show that it resulted in some level of social mobility, which is a good thing for equality
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What happened in the 1980s and 1990s?
There was a boom which sent lots of wealth to the top 20% of people and created a bigger divide between them and the rest of the people
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How was this divide hidden?
Becuase people aspire to similar things - 'vertical emulation' (Juliet Schor)
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Why does 'vertical emulation' create a problem?
It increases the level of debt faced by the lower classes and thus increases the financial divide between the classes
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What year was the first champagne advert?
1949
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Which magazine?
Life magazine
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Which brand?
Miller High Life
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When was the second champagne advert?
1965
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What did the first one depict?
A high class, aristocratic wedding - idealistic life - tuxedos and expensive dresses
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What did the second one depict?
A much more everyday scene - picnic - more relatable to all
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What does this suggest?
That the beer changed its audience from exclusive upper class to the lower classes
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What does this reflect?
The growing ability for the lower classes to aspire to the same level as the higher classes
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What else could be the reason behind it?
The growth in mass production
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What is the topic of paragraph 3?
How consumerism has not increased global equality
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How is it a form of cultural imperialism?
Because Western brands dominate the market and drive down the prices of local produce resulting in lower wages for producers
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What has tried to combat this?
Companies such as fairtrade, which make sure that producers get a fair wage
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Why don't they change the equation?
Because they are a minority and so the majority of companies are still exploitative
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How are they a product of consumerism?
Because they are a reaction to the exploitation and also expanded by pressure on large companies from consumers
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What is 'compassionate consumerism'
When companies offer a deal such as 'buy one bottle of water and one will be donated to children in Africa'
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Who wrote about it?
Japhy Wilson
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Why did he say it is bad?
Because it increases the superiority complex of the West and actually has very little affect on global equality but makes people feel like they don't have to do anything else
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When was the Slow Food Movement established?
1986
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What does its success suggest?
That we might be moving in a positive direction towards greater global equality
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What is the main argument of the death and afterlife essay?
That the most dramatic changes occurred during the Reformation - quick and over a short period of time
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What is the topic of paragraph 1?
How purgatory changed before the Reformation
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Where and what year was it codified as a doctrine?
At the Council of Lyons in 1274
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What was the belief held prior to this?
That it was important that the living take care of the dead
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Which historian is this section?
John Arnold
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What evidence does he use
Feast days like All Saints and All Souls which aimed to placate the dead
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What other evidence can you use?
The tradition of grave goods
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What did people struggle with
The binary nature of heaven and hell
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Why this?
Because they felt that humans could not be so easily divided into two groups of good and bad
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How long did it take to diffuse into society?
About a century and a half
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What is the topic of paragraph 2?
Purgatory and the Reformation
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Who abolished it?
The Protestants
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What did they suggest?
That the living could have no bearing on the dead
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How do we know that this belief was not widespread?
The continuation of ghost stories
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How did the reformers combat ghost stories?
They said that they were frauds put forward by Catholics in an attempt to prove purgatory
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Why were they a way of 'proving' purgatory?
Because the ghosts were individuals who could not pass on due to unfinished business and who normally asked for prayers from the living
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What was the alternative given to ghosts being fake?
That they were angels sent from God
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Which historian is this section?
Peter Marshall
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What does he suggest?
That the lack of opposition to the dissolution of the chantries means that people did not agree with the doctrine of purgatory
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What other reasons could there be?
Fear of retribution, a dislike for the chantries or even a feeling that there was no need for them
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What suggests that there was still a belief in more than just heaven and hell
The other ideas put forward of a temporary resting place
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What examples of this were there?
Calvinist idea of 'abraham's bosom' and mortalist idea of the soul sleeping or dying temporarily
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What did both of these wait for?
The Last Judgement
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What is the topic of paragraph 3?
How the doctrine of heaven changed in the Reformation
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What was original Catholic belief?
Linked to the ptolemaic system - belief in 7 spheres
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How did Thomas Aquinas affirm this?
He argued that the more blessed an individual the closer they would be to God
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How does Dante depict heaven?
Timeless place of indescribable beauty in the presence of God
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How did this influence the West
Literature
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What concept that was introduced in the Reformation undermined this?
Predestination
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Was this influential?
Not massively so - Calvinist
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What was more influential?
Luther's belief
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What did he believe?
That heaven meant purely to be in the unchanging presence of God and so the seven spheres did not make sense
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What is the topic of paragraph 4?
How the doctrine of Hell changed
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Which criticism was the same as heaven?
The criticism of the hierarchical system
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What was the belief in the 14thC
That hell was a 'house of pain' suggesting 'brutal, physical torture'
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Who inspired this?
Dante
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What changed in the 16thC?
Became an idea of psychological torture
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What book showed this?
Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion
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What does it suggest?
That torture is metaphorical for being without God
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What is the argument for the urban life essay?
That the marginalisation in general is to do with prejudice
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What is the topic of paragraph 1?
That the main reason behind the marginalisation of the Jews was their relationship with the Christians
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Which historian is this section?
David Nicholas
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What does he say?
That you can't always tell if Jewish separation is enforced or self-chosen (to enforce ritual and prevent intermarriage)
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What example can you use to dispute this?
Majorca in 1231 when Jews were invited to settle but limited to certain places
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Another example is...
How Jewish quarters are most often found on the outskirts of town - away from the centre where people of high status lived
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What belief inspired this?
That the Jews were inferior to Christians
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What did Christians see themselves as?
God's chosen people
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Why did they think the Jews should always be subservient?
Because they killed Jesus
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What was another reason Jews were marginalised
Christians were in charge so they could do it
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What is a clear example of this?
The 1555 Papal Bull which made Roman Jews sell all their property, live in an enclosure at fixed rent and wear yellow caps
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Which other historian is this section?
Keith Lilley
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What does he say?
That religious and secular authorities valued order above all else
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Why is this significant?
Because it suggests that sometimes Jews might have been separated because of fear of what would happen rather than prejudice
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What is the topic of paragraph 2?
Prostitutes being marginalised because they were morally inferior
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Which historian?
Nicholas
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What did he say?
That many governments saw prostitutes as a necessary evil and that it must have been considered more normal because some higher standing citizens frequented them
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Despite this prostitutes were still confined to an area of the town. Give an example.
In Venice, prostitutes were seen as a 'tourist attraction' and the authorities kept a list of them, but they were only allowed in the area of town where the foreign merchants were
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What fear inspired this confinement also?
That 'honest women' would be mistaken for prostitutes
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How did Bristol prevent this?
By making it mandatory that prostitutes wear a striped hood
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How were lower class prostitutes viewed?
As the same level as thieves - tricking people out of money
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Who did this not apply to and why?
High class courtesans - not seen as part of the 'criminal underworld'
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What is the topic of paragraph 3?
How lepers were marginalised because they were considered 'unclean'
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Which historian?
Christopher Lewis
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What did he say?
Suggested that leper hospitals came about from groups of lepers gathering together in places that were good to collect alms?
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What do you think?
This is perhaps true but likely that the lepers were expelled from the towns first because the best place to collect alms would surely be the centre where it was most busy?
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What is the biblical teaching on lepers?
That they should be kept separated from society
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Which legend inspired another belief?
Legend of constantine - that he was struck down with leprosy as a punishment for persecuting Christians - inspired the belief that leprosy was a punishment for sin
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How did this make people view lepers?
As spiritually unclean
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What does this explain?
Separation pre 13C when it became accepted that it was contagious
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What else does it explain?
Discrimination that had nothing to do with contagion such as 13thC English Common Law which prevented lepers from obtaining property, having the right to sue or to make contracts
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What else shows this disdain?
The treatment of lepers during the 1321 water conspiracy
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How do we know this?
Lepers who testified pointed out prejudice as the main factor as to why the rumour spread so successfully
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Define progress

Back

Continuous stream of improvement regarding patient care and well-being as well as the development of cures

Card 3

Front

Main argument

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

First paragraph topic

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

What is significant about the Enlightenment?

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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