Social Psychology Exam

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What is attribution?
Assigning a cause to behavior.
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Heider: Naive Psychology Assumptions
To form a coherent view of the world
To gain control over the environment
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Correspondent Inference
Theory
(Jones & Davis, 1965)
1.Was the behaviour is freely chosen?
2. Did it produce unique consequences? (also called non-common effects)
3. Was the behaviour socially desirable?
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Covariation model
(Kelley, 1967)
Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus
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Causal schemata
‘a general conception that a person has about how certain kinds of causes interact to produce a specific kind of effect.’ Kelley (1972)
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Attribution biases: FAE, Actor-observer and self-serving.
Fundamental attribution error
Internal causes for behaviour are easiest explanation
Actor- observer effect: own behaviour external, other’s behaviour internal
Perceptual focus and informational differences
Self-serving biases:
Self-enhancing:
attributing
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Kelley (1950)
Initial attributions more influential in decision making.
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Asch’s (1946) configural model:
‘warm/cold’: central trait (Kelley, 1950)
‘polite/blunt’: peripheral trait (Asch, 1946)
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Bias in impression formation
Physical appearance
What is beautiful is good
Halo effect: Good things go together

Traits
Central vs. Peripheral
Primacy

Also: Stereotypes
Assumed characteristics based on category membership, e.g. nationality, sex, age
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Intergroup contexts
Attributions made about behaviour based upon group memberships
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Another word for Ingroup-serving bias
(ethnocentrism)
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Attribution as discourse.
“The words that people use to describe simple, everyday actions and states carry with them powerful implications for the causal explanation of those events” (Edwards & Potter 1993, p. 23).
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What is helping behaviour?
Actions intended to improve the situation of the help-recipient
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Prosocial behaviour
Helping that is not motivated by professional
or organisational obligations
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Altruism
motivated by benefiting another rather than oneself; do not expect a personal gain
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The “Selfish Gene”
What is important is the survival of the individual’s genes, not survival of the fittest individual.
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What is reciprocal altruism?
helping other people with the hope that they will help you.
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Arousal: Cost-Reward Model
More likely to help when the potential rewards of helping seem high relative to the potential costs.
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Why do we help to feel good?
If self-esteem has been threatened by failure.
Feeling guilty about something.
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Moral Hypocrisy
Appearing moral without the costs of
being moral.
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The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Having the response of empathy can lead to altruistic motives.
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Negative state relief model
Humans have an innate drive to reduce negative attitudes.
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Bystander Effect
The presence of others inhibits helping.
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Five steps to helping...
1.Notice
2. Interpretation
3. Responsibility
4. How to help?
5. Provide help.
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Latané & Darley (1968): “epileptic fit”
Larger groups associated with lower rates of helping and longer times.
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Explanations
Diffusion of responsibility
When with others assume someone else will take responsibility. When alone carry responsibility
A person does not need to see others or be seen by them

Audience inhibition
Self-consciousness: don’t want to look foolish by overr
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Time Pressure
Time pressure can conflict with one’s good intentions of helping those in need.
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Why feeling good leads to doing good:
Desire to maintain one’s good mood.
Positive expectations about helping.
Positive thoughts.
Positive thoughts and expectations about social activities.
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Why feeling good might not lead to doing good:
Costs of helping are high.
Positive thoughts about other social activities that conflict with helping
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When negative moods make us more likely to help others:
If we take responsibility for what caused our bad mood (i.e., feel guilty).
If we focus on other people.
If we are made to think about our personal values that promote helping.
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When negative moods make us less likely to help others:
If we blame others for our bad mood.
If we become very self-focused.
If we are made to think about our personal values that do not promote helping.
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How do role models inspire helping?
Provides an example of behavior to imitate directly.
Teaches that helping is valued and rewarding.
Increases awareness of societal standards of conduct.
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Essential Qualities for an Altruistic Personality
Empathy
Social responsibility
Internal locus of control
Just-world belief
Esteem enhancement
Internalized and advanced moral reasoning
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Attractiveness of Person in Need
More likely to help physically attractive people.

More likely to help friendly individuals.

The charisma of one person can determine how much help other people receive.
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The Fit Between Giver and Receiver: Similarity
More likely to help those who are similar.

May be a form of kinship selection.

Effects of racial similarity are highly inconsistent.

Intergroup biases in helping can be reduced if perceive selves as members of a common group
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What are attitudes?
What all [these definitions] have in common is the notion that an attitude involves categorization of an object along an evaluative dimension” (Fazio, Chen, McDonel, & Sherman, 1982, p. 341)
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Cognitive Functions of Attitudes
Object-appraisal: Attitudes summarise (+) & (-) attributes of objects
Social adjustment: Attitudes guide behaviour towards people/objects we like/dislike
Externalisation: Attitudes defend against internal conflict by enabling individuals to develop consis
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Theoretical approaches to the study of relationships: Social exchange
Social exchange = a need to gain rewards and avoid disadvantages
Equity approach – maintaining equal input/output ratio
Communal relationships – providing benefits without expectation of return
Societal structures of the mind – content of what is exchange
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Theoretical approaches to the study of relationships: Cognitive-Behavioural
Cognitive-behavioural = perception of relationship events affects subjective experience
Balance theories - A need to maintain balance and avoid dissonance
Attributions – different if relationships are view positively or not
CBT – mitigating maladaptive at
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Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969)
Unique bond between child-caregiver serves as a base for psychological development
Adult relationships may follow similar patterns as child-caregiver relationships
Securely attached individuals have higher self-esteem and demonstrate more adaptive relatio
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Theoretical approaches to the study of relationships: Integration
Theoretical models not mutually exclusive

Fiske (1992) dynamic relational system of four psychological models
“people in all cultures use just four relational models to generate most kinds of social interaction, evaluation and affect” (1992: 689)
Commun
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Love Attitudes Scale
42 item scale
Eros – passionate love
Storge – friendship love
Ludus – game-playing love
Mania – possessive and dependent love
Pragma – logical love
Agape – selfless love
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Hatfield and Sprecher (1986)
A 15/30-item scale to explore three facets of
love. Behavioural, affective and congitive.
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What makes us fall in love?
‘Two-factor theory of emotion’ (Schachter & Singer, 1962). Physiological arousal and label.

‘Arousal attraction effect’, readiness, specific cues (Dutton & Aron, 1974)
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Types of conflict (Roberts, 2006)
Physical aggression
Hostile affect
Critical behaviour
Defensive behaviour
Withdrawing behaviour
Controlling behaviour
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What causes breakdown?
Rules, perceptions, disappointments and betrayal (Rusbult et al., 2002)
Demographic variables
Personality and cognitive process factors
Dyadic processes (Vangelisti, 2006)
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Falling out and breaking up
Specific Affect Coding System’ (Gottman, 1994)
10 hostile affects (e.g., disgust, contempt, whining)
Domains of destructive behaviour (Heyman, 2001)
Critical behaviour: starting arguments with accusations; criticising the person not their behaviour; ‘floo
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Falling out and breaking up
Stages of relationship breakdown
(Baxter, 1984; Duck, 1982; Knapp, 1978)
Recognize problems
Discuss problems
Turn to social network
Recover and repair
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Strategies of dissolution
(Baxter, 1984, see also Cody, 1982)
Withdraw/avoidance
Manipulation
Positive-tone strategies
Open confrontation
(Baxter, 1984, see also Cody, 1982)
Withdraw/avoidance
Manipulation
Positive-tone strategies
Open confrontation
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Optimal conditions for reducing prejudice
Institutional support

Acquaintance potential

Equal Status

Co-operative activity
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Generalizing the effects of contact...
De-categorization (Brewer & Miller, 1984).
Group memberships should be de-emphasised during contact.

Re-categorization (Gaertner et al., 1993).
Shared group memberships should be emphasised during contact (superordinate identity; common ingroup model).
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Heider: Naive Psychology Assumptions

Back

To form a coherent view of the world
To gain control over the environment

Card 3

Front

Correspondent Inference
Theory
(Jones & Davis, 1965)

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

Covariation model
(Kelley, 1967)

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Causal schemata

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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