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6. What is the main idea of Self-Affirmation Theory?

  • People can reduce threats to their self-esteem by distancing themselves from the source of the threat
  • People can reduce threats to their self-esteem by affirming themselves in areas related to the source of the threat
  • People can reduce threats to their self-esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the source of the threat
  • People can reduce threats to their self-esteem by directly addressing the source of the threat

7. What is insufficient punishment characterized by?

  • The dissonance caused when individuals resist a desired activity
  • The dissonance caused by engaging in counter-attitudinal behavior
  • The dissonance caused by lacking sufficient external justification for resisting a desired activity
  • The dissonance caused by having too much external justification

8. In Steele, Hoppe, and Gonzales' (1986) study, what were students asked to do regarding ranking record albums?

  • Rank albums and keep the fifth or sixth ranked album
  • Rank albums and trade rankings with another student
  • Rank albums and keep the top-ranked album
  • Rank albums and give them away as a reward

9. What additional task did half of the students in each group perform in Aronson, Fried, and Stone's (1991) study?

  • Recite their speech to a camera for a recording
  • Compose a list of circumstances in which they used condoms
  • Compose a list of circumstances in which they did not use condoms
  • Recite their speech to a live audience

10. What is the main characteristic of hypocrites, as described in the Hypocrisy Paradigm?

  • They polarize their judgments
  • They judge others more leniently
  • They judge others more harshly
  • They avoid making moral judgments

11. What is post-decision dissonance?

  • Dissonance experienced after making a decision
  • Dissonance experienced during decision-making
  • Dissonance experienced before making a decision
  • Dissonance unrelated to decision-making

12. When external justifications cannot be found, what is the alternative method for reducing dissonance?

  • Counter-attitudinal behavior
  • Harsh punishment
  • Internal justification
  • Avoiding temptation

13. What was the main finding regarding the participants' ratings of the tasks in Festinger and Carlsmith's (1959) study?

  • Participants who were offered $1 rated the tasks as boring
  • Participants who were offered $1 rated the tasks as more enjoyable
  • Participants who were offered $20 rated the tasks as more enjoyable

14. Why does understanding cognitive dissonance explain much of human thinking?

  • Because human thinking is always rational
  • Because human thinking is completely unrelated to attitudes
  • Because human thinking is not rational but involves rationalizing
  • Because human thinking is only based on behavior

15. According to Tesser and Smith's (1980) study, how did students give clues in a word game that was low importance?

  • They gave equally difficult clues to both strangers and friends
  • They gave easier clues to friends
  • They gave harder clues to friends

16. According to Gibbons, Eggleston &Benthin's study, what happened to relapser's perception of health risk after resuming smoking?

  • It remained unchanged
  • It declined significantly
  • It increased significantly
  • It had no correlation with relapse

17. In the study by Aronson and Mills (1959), what was the screening procedure for the college students joining the discussion group?

  • One third had a demanding/unpleasant screening, one third had a mildly unpleasant screening, and one third had no screening at all
  • All participants had a demanding/unpleasant screening
  • All participants had a mildly unpleasant screening

18. What is counter-attitudinal behavior?

  • Acting in a way that aligns with harsh punishment
  • Acting in a way that aligns with our private beliefs
  • Acting in a way that conflicts with our private beliefs or attitudes
  • Acting in a way that aligns with external justifications

19. What did Jack Brehm's (1956) study reveal about the participants' ratings of the appliances they chose and the one they did not choose?

  • Participants lowered their rating of both appliances
  • Participants raised their rating of the chosen appliance and lowered the rating of the other
  • Participants lowered their ratings of the chosen appliance
  • Participants raised their ratings of both appliances

20. How did Aronson (1969) develop the definition of cognitive dissonance?

  • Dissonance is most painful when beliefs are consistent
  • Dissonance is most painful when it challenges self-esteem
  • Dissonance is most painful when cognitions are unrelated
  • Dissonance is most painful when attitudes are in alignment