Research methods

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Experimental method
A scientific method involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. Participants are randomly allocated to different testing groups , experiments should be standardized. Independent variable is manipulated to see change on DV
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Operationalisation
Variables must be operationalised, this means they must be clearly defined to make them easy to manipulate and measured.
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Advantages and disadvantages
Some variables are harder to operationalise and it also leads to one aspect of a variable being measured. Without it results will be unreliable and could not be replicated to check validity.
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Extraneous variables
Variables that could affect the dependent variable, they need to be controlled so they do not vary across experimental conditions or between participants
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extraneous variable- participant variable
concerns factors such as participants age and intelligence
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extraneous variable- situational variable
concerns the experimental setting and surrounding environment, e.g temperature and noise
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extraneous variable- experimenter variable
concerns changes in personality, appearance and conduct of the researcher e.g female researchers may gain different results from men
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confounding veriables
These are uncontrolled extraneous variables, they confuse the results by affecting the DV
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Lab experiments
Performed in a controlled environment using standadised procedures with participants randomly allocated to experimental groups
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Advantages of lab experiments
There is a high degree of control (IV and DV are precisely defined and measured), replication, isolation of variables (individual pieces of behavior can be isolated and tested), cause and effect(the effect must be caused solely by manipulation of IV)
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Weakness of lab experiment
experimenter bias(experimenters expectations could affect results and participants), problems operationalising the IV and DV(to gain precision measurements become to specific and not relate to wider behavior), low external validity, demand character
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Field experiments
occur in 'real world' setting rather than a lab. The IV is manipulated by the experimenter and as many other variables as possible are controlled
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Natural experiments
The IV is not manipulated but the DV is recorded
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Advantages of field and natural experiments
High ecological validity (results relate to everyday behavior and can be generalized to setting), no demand Characteristic (often participants are unaware that their part of an experiment and so there are demand characteristics)
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Disadvantages of field and natural experiments
Less control(casualty is harder to to establish), cannot be replicated, ethics, sample boas ( participants are not randomly allocated to groups so samples may not be comparable to each other)
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Observational techniques
Observation involves watching and recording behavior. Most observations are naturalistic but can occur under controlled conditions
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Types of observation
Participant observation, non-participants observation, overt, covert
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Participant observation
Involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more 'hands-on' perspective
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non-participants observation
involves researchers not actively being involved in the behavior being studied
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overt
participants are aware thay are being observed
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covert
Participants are unaware of being observed
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Advantages of observational techniques
High external validity, practical method (can be used in situation where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical), few demand characteristics
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weakness of observational techniques
observer bias (observer may see what they want to see), replication, ethics, practical problems (it can be difficult to remain to remain unobserved and there can be problems recording behavior)
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Behavioral categories
Observers agree on grid on which to record the behavior being studied. The behavioral categories chosen should reflect what is being studied
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Sampling procedures
In observational studies it is difficult to observe all behaviour. Breaking behaviour down into categories helps but decisions must be made on what type of sampling procedure to use
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Event Sampling
counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in a target individual or individuals
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Time Sampling
Counting behaviour in a set time frame
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inter-observer reliability
observers consistently code behaviour in the same way
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Self-report techniques
participants give information about themselves without researcher interference
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questionnaire
self-report method where participants record their own answers to a pre-set list of questions
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fixed questions
involve yes/no answers, these answers easy to quantify, bust restrict participants answers
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open questions
allows participants answer in their own words. more difficult to analyse but allow freedom of expression and greater depth of answers
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advantages of questionnaires
quick, can be completed without researchers present, closed answers are easier to analyse and open answers provide indebt answers, can be replicated
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disadvantages of questionnaires
participants may misunderstand question, they can get low return rates,they are not suitable for sensitive issues requiring detailed understanding, social desirability
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questionnaires construction
Aims, length, previous questionnaires, question formation, pilot study, measurement scales
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Aims
having an exact aim makes it easier to write questions that address this aim
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length
questionnaires should be short and to the point as people are not likely to complete longer ones
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previous questionnaires
use examples that were previously successful as a basis for your design
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pilot study
should be tested on people who can provide detailed and honest feedback on all aspects of the design
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Measurement scales
used to assess psychological characteristics or attitudes. These involve statements on which participants rate level of agreement and disagreement. It is not easy to judge answers so many pick the middle score
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Interviews
Self-report method where participants answer questions in face-to-face situations
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Structured Interviews
involves identical closed questions being read to participants, with the interviewer writing down the answers. The interviewers do not need much training as the interviews are easy to conduct
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Unstructured Interviews
Informal discussion on a particular topic. Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions. Interviewers need considerable training to conduct such interviews
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Semi-structured Interviews
involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing qualitative ans quantitative data
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Advantages of interviews
It can be replicated, structured interviews produce quantitative data that can be easily analysed, misunderstood questions can be explained, complicated topics can be discussed in an interview by making participant relaxed and willing to talk
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weaknesses of interviews
interviewers may unconsciously bias answers like by their appearance, a lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews and such interviewers are not easy to find, participants may not know the true purpose of an interview
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weaknesses of interviews#2
interviews are not suited to participants who find it difficult to put their feelings and opinions into words
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Design of interviews
Decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer . Several interpersonal variables affect this decision
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Gender and Age
The sex and age of interviewers affect participants answers when topics are of a sensitive nature
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Ethnicity
Interviewers may have problems interviewing people from a different ethnic group to themselves
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Personal characteristics and adopted role
Interviewers can adopt different roles within an interview setting, and use of formal language, accent and appearance can also affect how someone comes across to the interviewee
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Co-variables
It is investigated in a correlation. They are not referred to as the IV and DV because the experiment is investigating the relationship between the them.
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Correlational studies
involves measuring the strength and direction of relationships between co-variables
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Positive correlation
occurs where one co-variable increases as another co-variableincreases
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Negative correlation
On co-variable increases while another co-variable decreases
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Advantages of correlation analysis
Allows predictions to be made, allows a qualification of relationship, do not need to be manipulated so can be used when carrying out an experiment may be unethical
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weaknesses of correlation analysis
numbers that appear low may be useful while numbers that appear high may not be significant, not done in a controlled environment so we can not totally say one con-variable caused another, co-variable might be affected by another factor,
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weaknesses of correlation analysis#2
only measures linear relationships
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Card 2

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Operationalisation

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Variables must be operationalised, this means they must be clearly defined to make them easy to manipulate and measured.

Card 3

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Advantages and disadvantages

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Card 4

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Extraneous variables

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Card 5

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extraneous variable- participant variable

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