Research methods

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Aim
What the researcher wants to find out
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Bar chart
Shows data for categories that the researcher wants to display
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Behavioural categories
Categories of behaviours the researcher will study and record
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Case study
An in depth study on one person, group or event where a lot of detailed data has been collected
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Closed questions
Questions where the answer is either yes/no. Produces quantitative data.
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Co-variables
Variables involved in a correlation
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Concurrent validity
Comparing a new test with a different one to see if the results are similar.
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Confidentiality
All personal data is received is kept private and anonymous
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Confounding variable
A variable that varies with the IV and affects the DV, reducing the validity of the data
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Content analysis
Used to analyse qualitative data and involves putting written data into categories (making it quantitative)
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Control group
A group that is used to measure behaviour in a 'normal' environment and compare to the IV environment
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Controlled observation
An observation that takes place in a lab that has some variables controlled
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Correlational analysis
Analysing whether there is a correlation between two variables or not
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Counterbalancing
Controlling order effects by having participants in an AB or BA group
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Covert observation
Participants do not know their behaviour is being observed. No Hawthorne effect, but deception
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Critical value
The value a test value must reach in order to be significant
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Debriefing
Takes place after the experiment, true aim is revealed, participants are offered counselling etc
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Deception
Misleading participants about the true aim/content of the study
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Demand characteristics
Characteristics participants display when they try to work out the aim of the study, they want to appear better etc
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Dependent variable
The variable that is measured
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Descriptive statistics
Helps make more statistics more meaningful by showing them a certain way
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One-tailed hypothesis
Directional hypothesis. States the expected relationship of the hypothesis
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Dispersion measure/statistical deviation
How data is spread out
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Double blind control
Neither the psychologists or the participants know the true aim of the study
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Ecological validity
How the results can be generalised to real-life situations
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BPS
British psychological society. Provides ethical guidelines for psychologists
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Ethical issues
Informed consent, deception, protection from harm, privacy and confidentiality
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Evaluation apprehension
Participants changing their behaviour because they are scared of the observers
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Event sampling
Target behaviour is determined and the researcher notes down whenever it happens
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Experimental group
The group that is being experimented on with the IV and DV
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External validity
Whether the results can be generalised to outside the context of the study
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Extraneous variable
A variable that if not controlled will become confounding and affect the validity of the study
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Face validity
Whether on the surface, a study looks like it's correct/it measures what it's supposed to
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Field experiment
An experiment that doesn't occur in the researcher's environment, but IV is still manipulated
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Histogram
A graph used for continuous data eg. test scores. On a scale.
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Hypothesis
A formal prediction of what the outcome of the experiment will be
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Independent groups design
Different sets of participants do different conditions. No participant does the same condition twice.
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Independent variable
The variable manipulated by the researcher
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Inferential statistics
When using statistical tests, shows whether the results were significant or not
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Informed consent
Participants know what they are consenting to
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Inter-rater/observer reliability
The extent to which two or more observers are recording behaviour the same way
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Internal validity
If the results were valid inside the context of the experiment ie. no confounding variables
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Interval level data
Data mixed in fix units with equal distance between points on the scale eg. temperature
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Investigator effects
If the researcher has an effect on the participants' behaviour
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Lab experiment
Study is carried out in the researcher's controlled environment
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Matched pair designs
Participants' characteristics are closely matched and they are then each assigned a condition
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Mean
Measure of central tendency. Adding up all the results and dividing them by the number of results to find the average.
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Measures of central tendency
Indicates where the 'middle' of the data is eg. mean, median, mode
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Median
Lining up the data from lowest to highest and selecting the middle number
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Meta-analysis
Researchers examine previous studies to draw a conclusion
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Mode
The most frequently occurring score of data (mode=most)
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Natural experiment
Where the IV already exists eg. gender and the researcher doesn't manipulate it
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Negative correlation
When one variable increases, another decreases
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Nominal level data
Data falling into categories
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Non-directional hypothesis
A hypothesis with no prediction, just an assumption that there will be some kind of relationship
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Normal distribution
Data is symmetrical with the mean, median and mode all falling in the centre of the highest peak
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Observed value
The value obtained from conducting a statistical test
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Observer bias
The observer influences the observation as they know the aim of the observation etc
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Open questions
Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. Qualitative data.
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Operationalising variables
Clearly stating how the IV and DV will be measured/manipulated
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Opportunity sample
A sample that is selected because they are easily accessible
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Order effects
In a repeated measures design, if the participant changes their behaviour because of practice/boredom
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Ordinal level data
Data that is given in rank order eg. attractiveness rating. No quantifiable
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Overt observation
Participants know they are being observed
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Participant observation
The researcher joins the group or situation they are observing
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Peer review
Before any research is published, it is sent to an expert psychologist to be reviewed and checked for any problems
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Pilot study
A small trial run of the study before it goes ahead to check for any problems/ambiguities
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Positive correlation
When two variables increase at the same time
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Presumptive consent
Asking a group of similar people if they would consent to the study that's about to take place
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Primary data
Data collected by the researcher themselves
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Prior general consent
Participants consent to being deceived
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Probability
How likely something is to happen
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Protection from harm
Protecting the participants' from physical, emotional or psychological harm. Not exposing them to any more harm than they would experience in everyday life
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Qualitative data
Data that is expressed in words
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Quantitative data
Data that is expressed in numbers
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Quasi experiment
An experiment where the IV exists eg. first-born so there can be no random allocation
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Questionnaire
A set of written questions that participants answer themselves
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Random sampling
Everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
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Randomisation
Using chance methods eg. computer generator, flipping a coin to make sure that allocation is fear and without researcher bias
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Range
The distance between the lowest and highest value in a set of scores
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Reliability
If an experiment is repeatable and the same/similar results can be found
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Repeated measures
Each participant does every condition
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Representative sample
The sample closely reflects the characteristics of the target population
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Retrospective consent
Participants can withdraw their data after the study if they wish
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Right to withdraw
Participants can leave the experiment at any time and withdraw their data
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Sample
A group of people taken from the target population to be part of the study
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Scattergram
Used to plot correlations to see if there's a correlation
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Secondary data
Data that is collected from someone else
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Semi-structured interview
An interview that has structured questions but there is room to elaborate and check understanding
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Sign test
Used to measure the direction of differences between scores
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Significance
If results are significant, they are unlikely to have happened because of chance
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Single-blind control
The participants don't know the aim of the study
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Skewed distribution
Data is clustered towards one end of the distribution
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Social desirability bias
Participants want to be seen in a good light so they behave differently
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Standard deviation
A measure of the average spread of scores around the mean
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Standardised instructions
Instructions given to the participants are identical and repeatable
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Standardised procedures
All participants are treated the exact same way
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Stratified sample
Participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the population
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Structured interview
The answers to the questions would be fixed, no deviation from the question
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Structured observation
A predetermined behaviour checklist is used to observe and record behaviour
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Systematic sample
Every nth person on the list is selected, eliminating researcher bias
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Target population
The group that a sample is taken from and results generalised to
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Temporal validity
If something is valid regardless of the time era
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Test-retest reliability
If something can be repeated on the same participants and the same results found
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Thematic analysis
Identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within data
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Time sampling
Recording behaviours that occur within a certain time period
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Type 1 error
False positive. Saying something is significant when it isn't
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Type 2 error
False negative. Saying something isn't significant when it is
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Unstructured interview
No fixed aims, more like a conversation than an interview
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Unstructured observation
Every behaviour is written down in as much detail as possible
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Validity
Whether something is true and sets out what it intended to measure
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Volunteer sample
Participants volunteer to be in the study, often responding to an advert
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Statistical test
Used to determine whether results of an experiment are significant or down to chance
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Chi-Squared
Unrelated design, test of difference, nominal data
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Sign test
Related design, nominal data, test of difference
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Chi-Squared
Nominal data, test of association
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Mann-Whitney
Ordinal data, unrelated design, test of difference
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Wilcoxon
Ordinal data, related design, test of difference
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Spearman's rho
Ordinal data, test of association
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Unrelated t-test
Interval data, unrelated design, test of difference
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Related t-test
Interval data, related design, test of difference
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Pearson's R
Test of association, interval data
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Alternative hypothesis
The original hypothesis
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Null hypothesis
The hypothesis that says there is no difference between the two variables
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Significance level (0.05)
The point at which the researcher can say their results are significant
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Critical value
The value in the table which must be compared with the statistical value
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Statistical value
If this value is greater than or equal to the critical value in the table, the results are significant
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One-tailed test
Use if there is a directional hypothesis
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Two-tailed test
Use if there is a non-directional hypothesis
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Degrees of freedom
The number of participants in the study
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Type 1 error
When the results are seen to be significant when they aren't eg. false positive
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Type 2 error
When the results are seen to be insignificant when they are eg. false negative
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Paradigms
Social sciences don't have a universally accepted paradigm (beliefs and assumptions) so they aren't sciences
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Paradigm shifts
When there's too much contradictory evidence of a paradigm to ignore, there is a scientific revolution
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Theory construction
Gathering evidence via direct observation
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Theory of falsification
Nothing is completely true, it just hasn't been proven wrong yet
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Popper's reliability
Nothing is reliable unless it can be repeated in a variety of contexts whilst remaining consistent
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Empirical method
Being objective and only reporting what you can experience, see etc
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Shows data for categories that the researcher wants to display

Back

Bar chart

Card 3

Front

Categories of behaviours the researcher will study and record

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

An in depth study on one person, group or event where a lot of detailed data has been collected

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

Questions where the answer is either yes/no. Produces quantitative data.

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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